THE 


f>  MARTYRS    OF    SCIENCE; 


THE    LIVES 


GALILEO,  TYCHO   BRAKE;  -AND    KEPLER. 


SIR  DAVID  BREWSTER,  K.H.,  D.C.L., 

PRINCIPAL    OP    THE    UNITED  COLLEGE  OF  ST.  SALVATOR 
AND  ST.  LEONARD,  ST.  ANDREWS,  &C.,  &C. 


N  E  W-Y  0  R  K  : 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  82  CLIFF-STREET. 

1  841. 


FAMILY     LIBRARY. 


THE  Publishers  avail  themselves  of  this  opportu- 
nity to  state  to  their  patrons  and  friends,  that  they 
have,  during  the  past  year,  made  increased  efforts 
to  render  the  Family  Library,  what  they  fully  in- 
tend it  shall  be,  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  col- 
lection of  popular  literature  that  has  appeared  in 
any  country.  Within  the  time  mentioned  they  have 
added  to  the  series  no  less  than  thirty  new  volumes, 
many  of  which  have  been  written  expressly  for 
this  object  by  our  best  authors,  while  the  rest  have 
been  edited  with  the  utmost  care,  to  render  them 
in  all  respects  unexceptionable.  The  names  of  Ir- 
ving, Renwick,  Potter,  Bryant,  Halleck,  Hale,  Up- 
ham,  Mackenzie,  and  Dana  will  be  found  among  the 
recent  American  contributors,  as  are  those  of  Paul- 
ding,  Bush,  Griscom,  Thatcher,  &c.,  among  those 
of  older  date ;  and  when  with  these  we  mention 
Scott,  Southey,  Brewster,  Milman,  Abercrombie, 
Montgomery,  Dick,  Russellr  James,  Turner,  Keight- 


2  FAMILY     LIBRARY. 

ley,  Johnson,  and  Goldsmith,  without  particulari- 
zing other  English  writers  scarcely  less  distinguish- 
ed whose  productions  have  a  place  in  the  Family 
Library,  nothing  more  can  be  necessary  to  show 
the  excellence  of  its  general  character.  Its  unex- 
ampled cheapness,  too,  places  it  within  the  com- 
mand  of  persons  of  moderate  means,  who,  while 
they  are  anxious  to  secure  for  themselves  and  their 
families  the  advantages  of  a  well-selected  library, 
are  little  able  to  purchase  expensive  books. 

The  Publishers  would  respectfully  suggest  to 
those  desirous  of  obtaining  the  entire  library,  or 
particular  volumes  necessary  to  complete  their  sets, 
that  the  present  is  a  favourable  opportunity  of  so 
doing,  there  being  now  a  supply  of  all  the  back 
numbers  on  hand. 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS. 
New-York,  May,  1841. 


TO  THE 


RIGHT  HON.  FRANCIS  LORD  GRAY, 

F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E. 


MY  LORD, 

IN  submitting  this  volume  to  the  public  under 
your  lordship's  auspices,  I  avail  myself  of  the 
opportunity  thus  afforded  me  of  expressing  the 
deep  sense  which  I  entertain  of  the  friendship 
and  kindness  with  which  your  lordship  has  so 
long  honoured  me. 

Although  in  these  days,  when  science  consti- 
tutes the  power  and  wealth  of  nations,  and  en- 
circles the  domestic  hearth  with  its  most  sub- 
stantial comforts,  there  is  no  risk  of  its  votaries 
being  either  persecuted  or  neglected,  yet  the 
countenance  of  those  to  whom  Providence  has 
given  rank  and  station  will  ever  be  one  of  the 
most  powerful  incitements  to  scientific  enterprise, 
A 


iv  DEDICATION. 

as  well  as  one  of  its  most  legitimate  rewards. 
Next  to  the  satisfaction  of  cultivating  science, 
and  thus  laying  up  the  only  earthly  treasure 
which  we  can  carry  along  with  us  into  a  better 
state,  is  that  of  having  encouraged  and  assisted 
others  in  the  same  beneficent  labours.  That 
your  lordship  may  long  continue  to  enjoy  these 
sources  of  happiness  is  the  earnest  prayer  of, 
MY  LORD, 

Your  lordship's 
Most  faithful  and  obedient  servant, 

DAVID  BREWSTER. 

ST.  LEONARDS,  ST.  ANDREWS,  ) 
October  12,  1840.  f 


CONTENTS. 


LIFE    OF   GALILEO. 
CHAPTER  I. 

Peculiar  Interest  attached  to  his  Life. — His  Birth. — His  early 
Studies. — His  Passion  for  Mathematics. — His  Work  on  the 
Hydrostatic  Balance. — Appointed  Lecturer  on  Mathematics 
at  Pisa.— His  Antipathy  to  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle. — 
His  Contentions  with  the  Aristotelians. — Chosen  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  Padua. — Adopts  the  Copernican  System, 
but  still  teaches  the  Ptolemaic  Doctrine. — His  alarming  Ill- 
ness.— He  observes  the  new  Star  in  1604. — His  magneti- 
cal  Experiments Page  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

Cosmo,  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany,  invites  Galileo  to  Pisa. — 
Galileo  visits  Venice  in  1609,  where  he  first  hears  of  the 
Telescope. — He  invents  and  constructs  one,  which  excites 
a  great  Sensation. — Discovers  Mountains  in  the  Moon,  and 
Forty  Stars  in  the  Pleiades. — Discovers  Jupiter's  Satellites 
in  1610. — Effect  of  this  Discovery  on  Kepler. — Manner  in 
which  these  Discoveries  were  received. — Galileo  appointed 
Mathematician  to  Cosmo. — Mayer  claims  the  Discovery  of 
the  Satellites  of  Jupiter. — Harriot  observes  them  in  England 
in  October,  1610 .29 

CHAPTER  III. 

Galileo  announces  his  Discoveries  in  Enigmas. — Discovers 
the  Crescent  of  Venus  ;  the  Ring  of  Saturn  ;  the  Spots  on 


VI  CONTENTS. 

the  Sun. — Similar  Observations  made  in  England  by  Har- 
riot.— Claims  of  Fabricius  and  Scheiner  to  the  Discovery  of 
the  Solar  Spots. — Galileo's  Letters  to  Velser  on  the  Claims 
of  Scheiner. — His  Residence  at  the  Villa  of  Salviati. — 
Composes  his  Work  on  Floating  Bodies,  which  involves 
him  in  new  Controversies  ....  Page  48 

,      CHAPTER  IV. 

Galileo  treats  his  Opponents  with  Severity  and  Sarcasm. — He 
is  aided  by  the  Skeptics  of  the  Day. — The  Church  Party  the 
most  powerful. — Galileo  commences  the  Attack,  and  is  an- 
swered by  Caccini,  a  Dominican. — Galileo's  Letter  to  the 
Grand-Duchess  of  Tuscany,  in  support  of  the  Motion  of 
the  Earth  and  the  Stability  of  the  Sun. — Galileo  visits 
Rome. — Is  summoned  before  the  Inquisition,  and  renounces 
his  Opinions  as  heretical. — The  Inquisition  denounces  the 
Copernican  System. — Galileo  has  an  Audience  of  tho 
Pope,  but  still  maintains  his  Opinions  in  private  Society. — 
Proposes  to  find  out  the  Longitude  at  Sea  by  means  of  Ju- 
piter's Satellites. — His  Negotiation  on  this  Subject  with 
the  Court  of  Spain. — Its  Failure. — He  is  unable  to  observe 
the  three  Comets  of  1618,  but  is  involved  in  the  Contro- 
versy to  which  they  gave  rise 60 

CHAPTER  V. 

Urban  VIII.,  Galileo's  Friend,  raised  to  the  Pontificate.— 
Galileo  goes  to  Rome  to  offer  his  Congratulations. — The 
Pope  loads  Galileo  with  Presents,  and  promises  a  Pension 
to  his  Son. — Galileo  in  pecuniary  Difficulties,  owing  to  the 
Death  of  his  Patron,  Cosmo.— IGalileo  again  rashly  attacks 
the  Church,  notwithstanding  the  Pope's  Kindness. — He 
composes  his  System  of  the  World,  to  demonstrate  the  Co- 


CONTENTS.  VII 

pernican  System. — Artfully  obtains  a  License  to  print  it. 
— Nature  of  the  Work. — Its  Influence  on  the  Public  Mind. 
— The  Pope  resolves  on  suppressing  it. — Galileo  summon- 
ed before  the  Inquisition. — His  Trial. — His  Defence. — His 
formal  Abjuration  of  his  Opinions. — Observations  on  his 
Conduct. — The  Pope  shows  great  Indulgence  to  Galileo, 
who  is  allowed  to  return  to  his  own  House  at  Arcetri  as 
the  Place  of  his  Confinement  ....  Page  74  J 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Galileo  loses  his  favourite  Daughter. — He  falls  into  a  state  of 
Melancholy  and  ill  Health. — Is  allowed  to  go  to  Florence 
for  its  Recovery  in  1638,  but  is  prevented  from  leaving  his 
House  or  receiving  his  Friends. — His  Friend  Castelli  per- 
mitted to  visit  him  in  the  Presence  of  an  Officer  of  the  In- 
quisition.— He  composes  his  celebrated  Dialogues  on  Local 
Motion. — Discovers  the  Moon's  Libration. — Loses  the  Sight 
of  one  Eye. — The  other  Eye  attacked  by  the  same  Disease. 
— Is  struck  Blind. — Negotiates  with  the  Dutch  Government 
respecting  his  Method  of  finding  the  Longitude. — He  is  al- 
lowed free  Intercourse  with  his  Friends. — His  Illness  and 
Death  in  1642. — His  Epitaph. — His  Social,  Moral,  and  Sci- 
entific Character  .  .  100 


LIFE   OF   TYCHO   BRAKE. 
CHAPTER  I. 

Tycho's  Birth,  Family,  and  Education. — An  Eclipse  of  the 
Sun  turns  his  Attention  to  Astronomy. — Studies  Law  at 
Leipsic,  but  pursues  Astronomy  by  Stealth. — His  Uncle's 
Death. — He  returns  to  Copenhagen,  and  resumes  his  Ob- 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

serrations. — Revisits  Germany. — Fights  a  Duel,  and  loses 
his  Nose. — Visits  Augsburg,  and  meets  Hainzel,  who  as- 
sists him  in  making  a  large  Quadrant. — Revisits  Denmark, 
and  is  warmly  received  by  the  King. — He  settles  at  his 
Uncle's  Castle  of  Herritzvold. — His  Observatory  and  Lab- 
oratory.— Discovers  the  new  Star  in  Cassiopeia. — Account 
of  this  remarkable  Body. — Tycho's  Marriage  with  a  Peas- 
ant-girl, which  irritates  bis  Friends. — His  Lectures  on  As- 
tronomy.— He  visits  the  Prince  of  Hesse. — Attends  the 
Coronation  of  the  Emperor  Rudolph  at  Ratisbon. — He  re- 
turns to  Denmark  .......  Page  117 

CHAPTER  II. 

Frederic  II.  patronises  Tycho,  and  resolves  to  establish  him 
in  Denmark. — Grants  him  the  Island  of  Huen  for  Life,  and 
Builds  the  splendid  Observatory  of  Uraniburg. — Descrip- 
tion of  the  Island  and  of  the  Observatory. — Account  of  its 
Astronomical  Instruments. — Tycho  begins  his  Observa- 
tions.— His  Pupils. — Tycho  is  made  Canon  of  Rothschild, 
and  receives  a  large  Pension. — His  Hospitality  to  his  Vis- 
iters. — Ingratitude  of  Witichius. — Tycho  sends  an  Assist- 
ant to  take  the  Latitude  of  Frauenburg  and  Konigsberg. — 
Is  visited  by  Ulric,  duke  of  Mecklenburg. — Change  in  Ty- 
cho's Fortunes  .  ..*.«.  .  .  .136 

CHAPTER  III. 

Tycho's  Labours  do  Honour  to  his  Country. — Death  of  Fred- 
eric II.— James  VI.  of  Scotland  visits  Tycho  at  Uraniburg. 
—Christian  IV.  visits  Tycho.— The  Duke  of  Brunswick's 
Visit  to  Tycho. — The  Danish  Nobility,  jealous  of  his  Fame, 
conspire  against  him. — He  is  compelled  to  quit  Uraniburg, 
and  to  abandon  his  Studies.— Cruelty  of  the  Minister  Wal- 
chendorp.— Tycho  quits  Denmark  with  his  Family  and  In- 


CONTENTS.  IX 

struments. — Is  hospitably  received  by  Count  Rantzau,  who 
introduces  him  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph. — The  Emperor 
invites  him  to  Prague. — He  gives  him  a  Pension  of  3000 
Crowns,  and  the  Castle  of  Benach  as  a  Residence  and  an 
Observatory. — Kepler  visits  Tycho,  who  obtains  for  him  the 
Appointment  of  Mathematician  to  Rudolph  .  Page  149 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Tycho  resumes  his  Astronomical  Observations. — Is  attacked 
with  a  painful  Disease. — His  Sufferings  and  Death  in  1601. 
— His  Funeral. — His  Temper. — His  Turn  for  Satire  and 
Raillery. — His  Piety. — Account  of  Astronomical  Discover- 
ies.— His  Love  of  Astrology  and  Alchymy. — Observations 
on  the  Character  of  the  Alchymists. — Tycho's  Elixir: — His 
Fondness  for  the  Marvellous. — His  Automata  and  Invisible 
Bells. — Account  of  the  Idiot,  called  Lep,  whom  he  kept  as 
a  Prophet. — History  of  Tycho's  Instruments. — His  great 
Brass  Globe  preserved  at  Copenhagen. — Present  State  of 
the  Island  of  Huen 165 


LIFE    OF   JOHN    KEPLER. 
CHAPTER  I. 

Kepler's  Birth  in  1571. — His  Family  and  early  Education.— 
The  Distress  and  Poverty  of  his  Family. — He  enters  the 
Monastic  School  of  Maulbronn,  and  is  admitted  into  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  where  he  distinguishes  himself  and 
takes  his  Degrees. — He  is  appointed  Professor  of  Astrono- 
my and  Greek  in  1594. — His  first  Speculations  on  the  Or- 
bits of  the  Planets. — Account  of  their  Progress  and  Fail- 
ure,— His  "  Cosmographical  Mystery"  published. — He  Mar- 


X  CONTENTS. 

ries  a  Widow  in  1597.— Religious  Troubles  at  Gratz.— He 
retires  from  thence  to  Hungary. — Visits  Tycho  at  Prague 
in  1600. — Returns  to  Gratz,  which  he  again  quits  for 
Prague. — He  is  taken  111  on  the  Road. — Is  appointed  Ty- 
cho's  Assistant  in  1601. — Succeeds  Tycho  as  Imperial 
Mathematician. — His  Work  on  the  new  Star  of  1604. — 
Singular  Specimen  of  it Page  187 

CHAPTER  II. 

Kepler's  pecuniary  Embarrassments. — His  Inquiries  respect- 
ing the  Law  of  Refraction. — His  Supplement  to  Vitellio. 
— His  Researches  on  Vision. — His  Treatise  on  Dioptrics. 
—His  Commentaries  on  Mars. — He  discovers  that  the  Or- 
bit of  Mars  is  an  Ellipse,  with  the  Sun  in  one  Focus,  and 
extends  the  Discovery  to  all  the  other  Planets. — He  estab- 
lishes the  two  first  Laws  of  Physical  Astronomy. — His 
Family  Distresses. — Death  of  his  Wife. — He  is  appointed 
Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Linz. — His  Method  of  choos- 
ing a  second  Wife. — Her  Character,  as  given  by  himself. 
— Origin  of  his  Treatise  on  Gauging. — He  goes  to  Ratis- 
bon  to  give  his  Opinion  to  the  Diet  on  the  Change  of  Style. 
—He  refuses  the  Mathematical  Chair  at  Bologna  .  201 

CHAPTER  III. 

Kepler's  continued  Embarrassments. — Death  of  Mathias. — 
Liberality  of  Ferdinand. — Kepler's  "  Harmonies  of  the 
World." — The  Epitome  of  the  Copernican  Astronomy. — 
It  is  prohibited  by  the  Inquisition. — Sir  Henry  Wotton,  the 
British  Ambassador,  invites  Kepler  to  England. — He  de- 
clines the  Invitation. — Neglect  of  Genius  by  the  English 
Government. — Trial  of  Kepler's  Mother. — Her  final  Ac- 
quittal, and  Death  at  the  Age  of  seventy-five. — The^States 
of  Styria  burn  publicly  Kepler's  Calendar. — He  receives 


CONTENTS  XI 

his  Arrears  of  Salary  from  Ferdinand. — The  Rudolphine 
Tables  published  in  1628. — He  receives  a  gold  Chain  from 
the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany. — He  is  patronised  by  the  Duke 
of  Friedland. — He  removes  to  Sagan,  in  Silesia. — Is  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Rostoch. — Goes  to 
Ratisbon  to  receive  his  Arrears. — His  Death,  Funeral,  and 
Epitaph. — Monument  erected  to  his  Memory  in  1803. — 
His  Family. — His  posthumous  Volume,  entitled  "  The 
Dream,  or  Lunar  Astronomy"  .  .  .  Page  215 

CHAPTERIV. 

Number  of  Kepler's  published  Works. — His  numerous  Man- 
uscripts in  22  folio  Volumes. — Purchased  by  Hevelius,  and 
afterward  by  Hansch,  who  publishes  Kepler's  Life  and 
Correspondence  at  the  Expense  of  Charles  VI. — The  His- 
tory of  the  rest  of  his  Manuscripts,  which  are  deposited  in 
the  Library  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg. 
— General  Character  of  Kepler. — His  Candour  in  acknowl- 
edging his  Errors. — His  Moral  and  Religious  Character. — 
His  Astrological  Writings  arid  Opinions  considered. — His 
Character  as  an  Astronomer  and  a  Philosopher. — The 
Splendour  of  his  Discoveries. — Account  of  his  Methods  of 
Investigating  Truth  .  .  ....  .228 


LIFE    OF    GALILE  O. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Peculiar  interest  attached  to  his  Life. — His  Birth. — His  early 
Studies. — His  Passion  for  Mathematics. — His  Work  on  the 
Hydrostatic  Balance. — Appointed  Lecturer  on  Mathematics 
at  Pisa. — His  Antipathy  to  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle. — 
His  Contentions  with  the  Aristotelians. — Chosen  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  Padua. — Adopts  the  Copernican  System, 
but  still  teaches  the  Ptolemaic  Doctrine. — His  alarming  Ill- 
ness.— He  observes  the  new  Star  in  1604. — His  magneti- 
cal  Experiments. 

THE  history  of  the  life  and  labours  of  Galileo 
is  pregnant  with  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  general 
reader  as  well  as  to  the  philosopher.  His  brilliant 
discoveries  the  man  of  science  regards  as  his  pe- 
culiar property ;  the  means  by  which  they  were 
made,  and  the  development  of  his  intellectual  char- 
acter, belong  to  the  logician  and  to  the  philoso- 
pher ;  but  the  triumphs  and  the  reverses  of  his 
eventful  life  must  be  claimed  for  our  common  na- 
ture, as  a  source  of  more  than  ordinary  instruction. 

The  lengthened  career  which  Providence  assign- 
ed to  Galileo  was  filled  up  throughout  its  rugged 
B 


14  GALILEO. 

outline  with  events  even  of  dramatic  interest. 
But,  though  it  was  emblazoned  with  achievements 
of  transcendent  magnitude,  yet  his  noblest  discov- 
eries were  the  derision  of  his  contemporaries,  and 
were  even  denounced  as  crimes  which  merited  the 
vengeance  of  Heaven.  Though  he  was  the  idol  of 
his  friends  and  tho  favoured  companion  of  princes, 
yet  he  afterward  became  the  victim  of  persecu- 
tion, and  spent  some  of  his  last  hours  within  the 
walls  of  a  prison  ;  and  though  the  Almighty  grant- 
ed him,  as  it  were,  a  new  sight  to  descry  unknown 
worlds  in  the  obscurity  of  space,  yet  the  eyes 
which  were  allowed  to  witness  such  wonders  were 
themselves  doomed  to  be  closed  in  darkness. 

Such  were  the  lights  and  shadows  in  which  his- 
tory delineates 

"  The  starry  Galileo  with  his  woes."* 
But,  however  powerful  be  their  contrasts,  they  are 
not  unusual  in  their  proportions.  The  balance 
which  has  been  struck  between  his  days  of  good 
and  evil  is  that  which  regulates  the  lot  of  man, 
whether  we  study  it  in  the  despotic  sway  of  the 
autocrat,  in  the  peaceful  inquiries  of  the  philoso- 
pher, or  in  the  humbler  toils  of  ordinary  life. 

Galileo  Galilei  was  born  at  Pisa,  on  the  15th  of 
February,  1564,  and  was  the  eldest  of  a  family  of 
three  sons  and  three  daughters.     Under  the  name 
*  Chjlde  Harold,  canto  iv.,  stanza  liv. 


GALILEO.  15 

of  Bonajuti  his  noble  ancestors  had  filled  high  offi- 
ces at  Florence,  but  about  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century  they  seem  to  have  abandoned  this  surname 
for  that  of  Galileo.  Vincenzo  Galilei,  our  au- 
thor's father,  was  himself  a  philosopher  of  no 
mean  powers  ;  and  though  his  talents  seem  to  have 
been  exercised  only  in  the  composition  of  treatises 
on  the  theory  and  practice  of  music,  yet  he  ap- 
pears to  have  anticipated  even  his  son  in  a  just  es- 
timate of  the  philosophy  of  the  age,  and  in  a  dis- 
tinct  perception  of  the  true  method  of  investigating 
truth.* 

The  early  years  of  Galileo  were,  like  those  of 
almost  all  great  experimental  philosophers,  spent 
in  the  construction  of  instruments  and  pieces  of 
machinery,  which  were  calculated  chiefly  to  amuse 
himself  and  his  schoolfellows.  This  employment 
of  his  hands,  however,  did  not  interfere- with  his 
regular  studies ;  and  though,  from  the  straitened 
circumstances  of  his  father,  he  was  educated  under 
considerable  disadvantages,  yet  he  acquired  the  el- 
ements of  classical  literature,  and  was  initiated 
into  all  the  learning  of  the  times.  Music,  draw- 
ing, and  painting  were  the  occupations  of  his  lei- 
sure hours  ;  and  such  was  his  proficiency  in  these 
arts,  that  he  was  reckoned  a  skilful  performer  on 
several  musical  instruments,  especially  the  lute ; 

*  Life  of  Galileo,  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  p.  1. 


16  GALILEO. 

and  his  knowledge  of  pictures  was  held  in  great 
esteem  by  some  of  the  best  artists  of  his  day. 

Galileo  seems  to  have  been  desirous  of  follow- 
ing the  profession  of  a  painter  :  but  his  father  had 
observed  decided  indications  of  early  genius  ;  and, 
though  by  no  means  able  to  afford  it,  he  resolved 
to  send  him  to  the  University  to  pursue  the  study 
of  medicine.  He  accordingly  enrolled  himself  as 
a  scholar  in  arts  at  the  University  of  Pisa  on  the 
5th  of  November,  1581,  and  pursued  his  medical 
studies  under  the  celebrated  botanist  Andrew  Coe- 
salpinus,  who  filled  the  chair  of  medicine  from 
1567  to  1592. 

In  order  to  study  the  principles  of  music  and 
drawing,  Galileo  found  it  necessary  to  acquire  some 
knowledge  of  geometry.  His  father  seems  to  have 
foreseen  the  consequences  of  following  this  new 
pursuit ;  and  though  he  did  not  prohibit  him  from 
reading  Euclid  under  Ostilio  Ricci,  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors  at  Pisa,  yet  he  watched  his  progress  with 
the  utmost  jealousy,  and  had  resolved  that  it  should 
not  interfere  with  his  medical  studies.  The  dem- 
onstrations, however,  of  the  Greek  mathematician 
had  too  many  charms  for  the  ardent  mind  of  Gal- 
ileo. His  whole  attention  was  engrossed  with  the 
new  truths  which  burst  upon  his  understanding; 
and,  after  many  fruitless  attempts  to  check  his  ar- 
dour and  direct  his  thoughts  to  professional  objects, 


GALILEO.  17 

his  father  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  parental 
control,  and  allow  the  fullest  scope  to  the  genius  of 
his  son. 

From  the  elementary  works  of  geometry  Gali- 
leo passed  to  the  writings  of  Archimedes  ;  and, 
while  he  was  studying  the  hydrostatical  treatise* 
of  the  Syracusan  philosopher,  he  wrote  his  essay 
on  the  hydrostatical  balance,f  in  which  he  describes 
the  construction  of  the  instrument,  and  the  method 
by  which  Archimedes  detected  the  fraud  commit, 
ted  by  the  jeweller  in  the  composition  of  Hiero's 
crown.  This  work  gained  for  its  author  the  esteem 
of  Guido  Ubaldi,  who  had  distinguished  himself  by 
his  mechanical  and  mathematical  acquirements, 
and  who  engaged  his  young  friend  to  investigate 
the  subject  of  the  centre  of  gravity  in  solid  bodies. 
The  treatise  on  this  subject  which  Galileo  present- 
ed to  his  patron,  proved  the  source  of  his  future 
success  in  life. 

Through  the  Cardinal  del  Monte,  the  brother-in- 
law  of  Ubaldi,  the  reigning  Duke  of  Tuscany,  Fer- 
dinand de  Medici  was  made  acquainted  with  the 
merits  of  our  young  philosopher,  and  in  1589  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  on  mathematics  at  Pisa. 
As  the  salary,  however,  attached  to  this  office  was 

*  De  Insidentibus  in  Fluido. 

t  Opere  di  Galileo,  Milano,  1810,  vol.  iv.,  p.  248-257. 
B2 


18  GALILEO. 

only  sixty  crowns,  he  was  compelled  to  enlarge  this 
inadequate  income  by  the  additional  occupation  of 
private  teaching,  and  thus  to  encroach  upon  the 
leisure  which  he  was  anxious  to  devote  to  science. 

With  this  moderate  competency  Galileo  com- 
menced his  philosophical  career.  At  the  early 
age  of  eighteen,  when  he  had  entered  the  Univer- 
sity, his  innate  antipathy  to  the  Aristotelian  phi. 
losophy  began  to  display  itself.  This  feeling  was 
strengthened  by  his  earliest  inquiries ;  and  upon 
his  establishment  at  Pisa  he  seems  to  have  re- 
garded the  doctrines  of  Aristotle  as  the  intellect- 
ual  prey  which,  in  his  chace  of  glory,  he  was 
destined  to  pursue.  Nizzoli,  who  flourished  near 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Gior- 
dano Bruno,  who  was  burned  at  Rome  in  1600, 
led  the  way  in  this  daring  pursuit ;  but  it  was  re- 
served for  Galileo  to  track  the  Thracian  boar 
through  its  native  thickets,  and,  at  the  risk  of  his 
own  life,  to  strangle  it  in  its  den. 

With  the  resolution  of  submitting  every  opinion 
to  the  test  of  experiment,  Galileo's  first  inquiries 
at  Pisa  were  directed  to  the  mechanical  doctrines 
of  Aristotle.  Their  incorrectness  and  absurdity 
soon  became  apparent ;  and  with  a  zeal,  perhaps, 
bordering  on  indiscretion,  he  denounced  them  to 
his  pupils  with  an  ardour  of  manner  and  of  ex- 
pression proportioned  to  his  own  conviction  of  the 


GALILEO.  19 

truth.     The  detection  of  long-established  errors  is 
apt  to  inspire  the  young  philosopher  with  an  exul- 
tation which   reason   condemns.     The  feeling  of 
triumph  is  apt  to  clothe  itself  in  the  language  of  as- 
perity, and  the  abettor  of  erroneous  opinions  13 
treated  as  a  species  of  enemy  to  science.     Like 
the  soldier  who  fleshes  his  first  spear  in  battle,  the 
philosopher  is  apt  to  leave  the  stain  of  cruelty  on 
his  early  achievements.     It  is  only  from  age  and 
experience,  indeed,  that  we  can  expect  the  discre- 
tion of  valour,  whether  it  is  called  forth  in  contro- 
versy  or  in  battle.     Galileo  seems  to  have  waged 
this  stern  warfare  against  the  followers  of  Aris- 
totle ;  and  such  was  the  exasperation  which  was 
excited  by  his  reiterated  and   successful  attacks, 
that  he  was  assailed,  during  the  rest  of  his  life, 
with  a  degree  of  rancour  which  seldom  originates 
in  a  mere  difference  of  opinion.     Forgetting  that 
all  knowledge  is  progressive,  and  that  the  errors 
of  one  generation  call  forth  the  comments,  and 
are  replaced  by  the  discoveries  of  the  next,  Gal- 
ileo did  not  anticipate  that  his  own  speculations 
and  incompleted  labours  might  one  day  provoke 
unmitigated  censure ;    and  he  therefore  failed  in 
making  allowance  for  the  prejudices  and  ignorance 
of  his  opponents.     He  who  enjoys  the  proud  lot  of 
taking  a  position  in  advance  of  his  age,  need  not 
wonder  that  his  less  gifted  contemporaries  are  left 


20  GALILEO. 

behind.  Men  are  not  necessarily  obstinate  be- 
cause they  cleave  to  deeply-rooted  and  venerable 
errors,  nor  are  they  absolutely  dull  when  they  are 
long  in  understanding  and  slow  in  embracing  new- 
ly discovered  truths. 

It  was  one  of  the  axioms  of  the  Aristotelian 
mechanics,  that  the  heavier  of  two  falling  bodies 
would  reach  the  ground  sooner  than  the  other, 
and  that  their  velocities  would  be  proportional  to 
their  weights.  Galileo  attacked  the  argument  by 
which  jhis  opinion  was  supported ;  and  when  he 
found  his  reasoning  ineffectual,  he  appealed  to  di- 
rect experiment.  He  maintained  that  all  bodies 
would  fall  through  the  same  height  in  the  same 
time,  if  they  were  not  unequally  retarded  by  the 
resistance  of  the  air;  and  though  he  performed 
the  experiment  with  the  most  satisfactory  results, 
by  letting  heavy  bodies  fall  from  the  leaning  tower 
of  Pisa,  yet  the  Aristotelians,  who,  with  their  own 
eyes,  saw  the  unequal  weights  strike  the  ground  at 
the  same  instant,  ascribed  the  effect  to  some  un- 
known cause,  and  preferred  the  decision  of  their 
master  to  tfoat  of  Nature  herself. 

Galileo  could  not  brook  this  opposition  to  his 
discoveries,  nor  could  the  Aristotelians  tolerate  the 
rebukes  of  their  young  instructer.  The  two  par- 
ties were  consequently  marshalled  in  hostile  array; 
when,  fortunately  for  both,  an  event  occurred 


GALILEO.  21 

which  placed  them  beyond  the  reach  of  danger. 
Don  Giovanni  de  Medici,  a  natural  son  of  Cosmo, 
had  proposed  a  method  of  clearing  out  the  harbour 
of  Leghorn.  Galileo,  whose  opinion  was  request- 
ed, gave  such  an  unfavourable  report  upon  it,  that 
the  disappointed  inventor  directed  against  him  all 
the  force  of  his  malice.  It  was  an  easy  task  to 
concentrate  the  malignity  of  his  enemies  at  Pisa ; 
and  so  effectually  was  this  accomplished,  that  Gal- 
ileo  resolved  to  accept  another  professorship,  to 
which  he  had  been  previously  invited. 

The  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Padua  having  been  vacant  for  five  years,  the  re- 
public of  Venice  had  resolved  to  fill  it  up ;  and, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Guido  Ubaldi,  Galileo 
was  appointed  to  it  in  1592,  for  a  period  of  six 
years. 

Previous  to  this  event  Galileo  had  lost  his  fa- 
ther, who  died  in  1591,  at  an  advanced  age.  As 
he  was  the  eldest  son,  the  support  of  the  family 
naturally  devolved  upon  him ;  and  this  sacred  ob- 
ligation must  have  increased  his  anxiety  to  better 
his  circumstances,  and  therefore  added  to  his  other 
inducements  to  quit  Pisa.  In  September,  1592,  he 
removed  to  Padua,  where  he  had  a  salary  of  only 
180  florins,  and  where  he  was  again  obliged  to  add 
to  his  income  by  the  labours  of  tuition.  Notwith- 
standing this  fruitless  occupation  ofv  his  time,  he 


22  GALILEO. 

appears  to  have  found  leisure  for  composing  sever- 
al of  his  works,  and  completing  various  inventions, 
which  will  be  afterward  described.  His  manu- 
scripts were  circulated  privately  among  his  friends 
and  pupils  ;  but  some  of  them  strayed  beyond  this 
sacred  limit,  and  found  their  way  into  the  hands 
of  persons  who  did  not  scruple  to  claim  and  pub- 
lish as  their  own  the  discoveries  and  inventions 
which  they  contained. 

It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  exact  time  when 
Galileo  became  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Co- 
pernicus,  or  the  particular  circumstances  under 
which  he  was  led  to  adopt  them.  It  is  stated  by 
Gerard  Voss  that  a  public  lecture  of  Moestlin,  the 
instructer  of  Kepler,  was  the  means  of  making  Gal- 
ileo  acquainted  with  the  true  system  of  the  uni- 
verse. This  assertion,  however,  is  by  no  means 
probable  ;  and  it  has  been  ably  shown  by  the  la- 
test biographer  of  Galileo,*  that  in  his  dialogues 
on  the  Copernican  system  our  author  gives  the  true 
account  of  his  own  conversion.  This  passage  is 
so  interesting  that  we  shall  give  it  entire. 

"  I  cannot  omit  this  opportunity  of  relating  to 
you  what  happened  to  myself  at  the  time  when  this 
opinion  (the  Copernican  system)  began  to  be  dis- 
cussed. I  was  then  a  very  young  man,  and  had 
scarcely  finished  my  course  of  philosophy,  which 

*  Life  of  Galileo,  in  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  p,  9. 


GALILEO.  23 

other  occupations  obliged  me  to  leave  off,  when 
there  arrived  in  this  country,  from  Rostoch,  a  for- 
eigner,  whose  name,  I  believe,  was  Christian  Vur- 
stisius  (Wurteisen),  a  follower  of  Copernicus. 
This  person  delivered  on  this  subject  two  or  three 
lectures  in  a  certain  academy,  and  to  a  crowded 
audience.  Believing  that  several  were  attracted 
more  by  the  novelty  of  the  subject  than  by  any 
other  cause,  and  being  firmly  persuaded  that  this 
opinion  was  a  piece  of  solemn  folly,  I  was  unwill- 
ing to  be  present.  Upon  interrogating,  however, 
some  of  those  who  were  there,  I  found  that  they 
all  made  it  a  subject  of  merriment,  with  the  excep- 
tion  of  one,  who  assured  me  that  it  was  not  a 
thing  wholly  ridiculous.  As  I  considered  this  in- 
dividual  to  be  both  prudent  and  circumspect,  I  re- 
pented that  I  had  not  attended  the  lectures  ;  andr 
whenever  I  met  any  of  the  followers  of  Coperni- 
cus, I  began  to  inquire  if  they  had  always  been  of 
the  same  opinion.  I  found  that  there  was  not  one 
of  them  who  did  not  declare  that  he  had  long 
maintained  the  very  opposite  opinions,  and  had 
not  gone  over  to  the  new  doctrines  till  he  was 
driven  by  the  force  of  argument.  I  next  examined 
them  one  by  one,  to  see  if  they  were  masters  of 
the  arguments  on  the  opposite  side  ;  and  such  was 
the  readiness  of  their  answers,  that  I  was  satisfied 
they  had  not  taken  up  this  opinion  from  ignorance 


24  GALILEO. 

or  vanity.  On  the  other  hand,  whenever  I  intcrro- 
gated  the  Peripatetics  and  the  Ptolemeans — and, 
out  of  curiosity,  I  have  interrogated  not  a  few — 
respecting  their  perusal  of  Copernicus's  work,  I 
perceived  that  there  were  few  who  had  seen  the 
book,  and  not  one  who  understood  it.  Nor  have  I 
omitted  to  inquire  among  the  followers  of  the  Per- 
ipatetic doctrines  if  any  of  them  had  ever  stood 
on  the  opposite  side  ;  and  the  result  was,  that  there 
was  not  one.  Considering,  then,  that  nobody  fol- 
lowed the  Copernican  doctrine  who  had  not  pre- 
viously held  the  contrary  opinion,  and  who  was  not 
well  acquainted  with  the  arguments  of  Aristotle 
and  Ptolemy ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  nobody 
followed  Ptolemy  and  Aristotle  who  had  before  ad- 
hered to  Copernicus,  and  had  gone  over  from  him 
into  the  camp  of  Aristotle — weighing,  I  say,  these 
things,  I  began  to  believe  that,  if  any  one  who  re- 
jects an  opinion  which  he  has  imbibed  with  his 
milk,  and  which  has  been  embraced  by  an  infinite 
number,  shall  take  up  an  opinion  held  only  by  a- 
few,  condemned  by  all  the  schools,  and  really  re- 
garded as  a  great  paradox,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  he  must  have  been  induced,  not  to  say  driven, 
to  embrace  it  by  the  most  cogent  arguments.  On 
this  account  I  have  become  very  curious  to  pene- 
trate to  the  very  bottom  of  the  subject."* 
*  Systema  Cosmicum,  Dial,  ii.,  p.  121. 


GALILEO.  25 

It  appears,  on  the  testimony  of  Galileo  himself, 
fthat  he  taught  the  Ptolemaic  system  in  compliance 
with  the  popular  feeling,  after  he  had  convinced 
IJiirnself  pf  the  truth  of  the  Copernican  doctrines. 
In  the  treatise  on  the  sphere,  indeed,  which  bears 
his  name,*  and  which  must  have  been  written  soon 
after  he  went  to  Padua,  and  subsequently  to  1592, 
the  stability  of  the  earth  and  the  motion  of  the  sun 
are  supported  by  the  very  arguments  which  Galileo 
afterward  ridiculed  ;  but  we  have  no  means  of  de- 
termining whether  or  not  he  had  then  adopted  the 
true  system  of  the  universe.  Although  he  might 
have  taught  the  Ptolemaic  system  in  his  lectures 
after  he  had  convinced  himself  of  its  falsehood,  yet 
it  is  not  likely  that  he  would  go  so  far  as  to  publish 
to  the  world  as  true  the  very  doctrines  which  he 
despised.  In  a  letter  to  Kepler,  dated  in  1597,  he 
distinctly  states  that  he  had,  many  years  ago,  adopt- 
ed the  opinions  of  Copernicus ;  but  that  he  had  not 
yet  dared  to  publish  his  arguments  in  favour  of  them, 
and  his  refutation  of  the  opposite  opinions.  These 
facts  would  leave  us  to  place  Galileo's  conversion 
somewhere  between  1593  and  1597,  although  many 
years  cannot  be  said  to  have  elapsed  between  these 
two  dates. 

*  The  authenticity  of  this  work  has  been  doubted.  It  was 
printed  at  Rome  in  1656,  from  a  MS.  in  the  library  of  Somas- 
chi,  at  Venice.  See  Opere  di  Galileo,  torn,  vii.,  p.  427. 

c 


26  GALILEO. 

At  this  early  period  of  Galileo's  life,  in  the  year 
1593,  he  met  with  an  accident  which  had  nearly 
proved  fatal.  A  party  at  Padua,  of  which  he  was 
one,  were  enjoying,  at  an  open  window,  a  current 
of  air,  which  was  artificially  cooled  by  a  fall  01 
water.  Galileo  unfortunately  fell  asleep  under  its 
influence ;  and  so  powerful  was  its  effect  upon  his 
robust  constitution,  that  he  contracted  a  severe 
chronic  disorder,  accompanied  with  acute  pains  in 
his  body,  and  loss  of  sleep  and  appetite,  which  at- 
tacked  him  at  intervals  during  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Others  of  the  party  suffered  still  more  severely,  and 
perished  by  their  own  rashness. 

Galileo's  reputation  was  now  widely  extended 
over  Europe.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  (after- 
ward Emperor  of  Germany),  the  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  and  the  princes  of  Alsace  and  Mantua,  hon- 
oured his  lectures  with  their  presence  ;  and  Prince 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  also  received  in- 
structions from  him  in  mathematics  during  his  so- 
journ in  Italy. 

When  Galileo  had  completed  the  first  period  of 
his  engagement  at  Padua,  he  was  re-elected  for 
other  six  years,  with  an  increased  salary  of  320 
florins.  This  liberal  addition  to  his  income  is  as- 
cribed by  Fabbroni  to  the  malice  of  one  of  his  en- 
emies, who  informed  the  Senate  that  Galileo  was 
living  in,  illicit  intercourse  with  Marina  Gamba. 


GALILEO.  27 

Without  inquiring  into  the  truth  of  the  accusation, 
the  Senate  is  said  to  have  replied,  that  if  "  he  had 
a  family  to  support,  he  had  the  more  need  of  an  in- 
creased salary."  It  is  more  likely  that  the  liberal- 
ity of  the  republic  had  been  called  forth  by  the 
high  reputation  of  their  professor,  and  that  the 
terms  of  their  reply  were  intended  only  to  rebuke 
the  malignity  of  the  informer.  The  mode  of  ex- 
pression would  seem  to  indicate  that  one  or  more 
of  Galileo's  children  had  been  born  previous  to  his 
re-election  in  1598  ;  but  as  this  is  scarcely  consist, 
ent  with  other  facts,  we  are  disposed  to  doubt  the 
authenticity  of  Fabbroni's  anecdote. 

The  new  star  which  attracted  the  notice  of  as- 
tronomers in  1604,  excited  the  particular  attention 
of  Galileo.  The  observations  which  he  made  upon 
it,  and  the  speculations  which  they  suggested,  form- 
ed  the  subject  of  three  lectures,  the  beginning  of 
the  first  of  which  only  has  reached  our  times. 
From  the  absence  of  parallax,  he  proved  that  the 
common  hypothesis  of  its  being  a  meteor  was  er- 
roneous, and  that,  like  the  fixed  stars,  it  was  situ- 
ated  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  our  own  system. 
The  popularity  of  the  subject  attracted  crowds  to 
his  lecture-room  ;  and  Galileo  had  the  boldness  to 
reproach  his  hearers  for  taking  so  deep  an  interest 
in  a  temporary  phenomenon,  while  they  overlooked 
the  wonders  of  creation  which  were  daily  presented 
to  their  view. 


28  GALILEO. 

In  the  year  1606  Galileo  was  again  appointed 
to  the  professorship  at  Padua,  with  an  augmented 
stipend  of  520  florins.  His  popularity  had  now 
risen  so  high  that  his  audience  could  not  be  ac- 
commodated in  his  lecture. room ;  and  even  when 
he  had  assembled  them  in  the  school  of  medicine, 
which  contained  1000  persons,  he  was  frequently 
obliged  to  adjourn  to  the  open  air. 

Among  the  variety  of  pursuits  which  occupied 
his  attention  was  the  examination  of  the  properties 
of  the  loadstone.  In  1607  he  commenced  his  ex- 
periments  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  method  of 
arming  loadstones,  which,  according  to  the  report 
of  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  enabled  them  to  carry  twice 
as  much  weight  as  before,  he  does  not  seem  to 
have  made  any  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  mag- 
netism. He  appears  to  have  studied  with  care  the 
admirable  work  of  our  countryman,  Dr.  Gilbert, 
"  De  Magnete,"  which  was  published  in  1600  ;  and 
he  recognised  in  the  experiments  and  reasonings 
of  the  English  philosopher  the  principles  of  that 
method  of  investigating  truth  which  he  had  himself 
adopted.  Gilbert  died  in  1603,  in  the  63d  year  of 
his  age,  and  probably  never  read  the  fine  compli- 
ment which  was  paid  to  him  by  the  Italian  philos- 
opher :  "  I  extremely  praise,  admire,  and  envy  this 
author." 


GALILEO.  29 

.       , 


CHAPTER  II. 

Cosmo,  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany,  invites  Galileo  to  Pisa. — 
Galileo  visits  Venice  in  1609,  where  he  first  hears  of  the 
Telescope. — He  invents  and  constructs  one,  which  excites 
a  great  Sensation. — Discovers  Mountains  in  the  Moon,  and 
Forty  Stars  in  the  Pleiades. — Discovers  Jupiter's  Satellites 
in  1610. — Effect  of  this  Discovery  on  Kepler. — Manner  in 
which  these  Discoveries  were  received. — Galileo  appointed 
Mathematician  to  Cosmo. — Mayer  claims  the  Discovery  of 
the  Satellites  of  Jupiter. — Harriot  observes  them  in  England 
in  October,  1610. 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  brought  down 
the  history  of  Galileo's  labours  to  that  auspicious 
year  in  which  he  first  directed  the  telescope  to  the 
heavens.  No  sooner  was  that  noble  instrument 
placed  in  his  hands,  than  Providence  released  him 
from  his  professional  toils,  and  supplied  him  with 
the  fullest  leisure  and  the  amplest  means  for  pur- 
suing and  completing  the  grandest  discoveries. 

Although  he  had  quitted  the  service  and  the  do- 
mains of  his  munificent  patron,  the  Grand-Duke  of 
Tuscany,  yet  he  maintained  his  connexion  with  the 
family  by  visiting  Florence  during  his  academic  va- 
cations, and  giving  mathematical  instruction  to  the 
younger  branches  of  that  distinguished  house. 
C2 


30  GALILEO. 

Cosmo,  who  had  been  one  of  his  pupils,  now  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Ferdinand  ;  and,  having  his  mind 
early  imbued  with  a  love  of  knowledge,  which  had 
become  hereditary  in  his  family,  he  felt  that  the 
residence  of  Galileo  within  his  dominions,  and,  still 
more,  his  introduction  into  his  household,  would  do 
honour  to  their  common  country,  and  reflect  a  lus- 
tre upon  his  own  name.  In  the  year  1609,  ac- 
cordingly, Cosmo  made  proposals  to  Galileo  to  re- 
turn to  his  original  situation  at  Pisa.  These  over- 
tures were  gratefully  received  ;  and  in  the  arrange- 
ments which  Galileo  on  this  occasion  suggested, 
as  well  as  in  the  manner  in  which  they  were  urged, 
we  obtain  some  insight  into  his  temper  and  char- 
acter. He  informs  the  correspondent  through 
whom  Cosmo's  offer  was  conveyed,  that  his  salary 
of  520  florins  at  Padua  would  be  increased  to  as 
many  crowns  at  his  re-election,  and  that  he  could 
enlarge  his  income  to  any  extent  he  pleased  by 
giving  private  lectures  and  receiving  pupils.  His 
public  duties,  he  stated,  occupied  him  only  sixty  half- 
hours  in  the  year  ;  but  his  studies  suffered  such  in- 
terruptions  from  his  domestic  pupils  and  private 
lectures,  that  his  most  ardent  wish  was  to  be  re- 
lieved from  them,,in  order  that  he  might  have  suf- 
ficient rest  and  leisure,  before  the  close  of  his  life, 
to  finish  and  publish  those  great  works  which  he 
had  projected.  In  the  event,  therefore,  of  his  re- 


GALILEO.  31 

turning  to  Pisa,  he  hoped  that  it  would  be  the  first 
object  of  his  serene  highness  to  give  him  leisure  to 
complete  his  works  without  the  drudgery  of  lectu- 
ring. He  expresses  his  anxiety  to  gain  his  bread 
by  his  writings,  and  he  promises  to  dedicate  them 
to  his  serene  master.  He  enumerates  among  these 
books  two  on  the  system  of  the  universe,  three  on 
local  motion,  three  books  of  mechanics,  two  on  the 
demonstration  of  principles,  and  one  of  problems  ; 
besides  treatises  on  sound  and  speech,  on  light  and 
colours,  on  the  tides,  on  the  composition  of  contin- 
uous quantity,  on  the  motions  of  animals,  and  on 
the  military  art.  On  the  subject  of  his  salary  he 
makes  the  following  curious  observations  : 

"  I  say  nothing,"  says  he,  "  on  the  amount  of  my 
salary,  being  convinced  that,  as  I  am  to  live  upon 
it,  the  graciousness  of  his  highness  would  not  de- 
prive me  of  any  of  those  comforts,  of  which,  how- 
ever, I  feel  the  want  of  less  than'  many  others, 
and  therefore  I  say  nothing  more  on  the  subject. 
Finally,  on  the  title  and  profession  of  my  service,  I 
should  wish  that,  to  the  title  of  mathematician,  his 
highness  would  add  that  of  philosopher,  as  I  profess 
to  have  studied  a  greater  number  of  years  in  phi- 
losophy than  months  in  pure  mathematics ;  and  how 
I  have  profited  by  it,  and  if  I  can  or  ought  to  de- 
serve this  title,  I  may  let  their  highnesses  see,  as 
often  as  it  shall  please  them  to  give  me  an  oppor- 


32  GALILEO. 

tunity  of  discussing  such  subjects  in  their  presence 
with  those  who  are  most  esteemed  in  this  knowl- 


During  the  progress  of  this  negotiation  Galileo 
went  to  Venice,  on  a  visit  to  a  friend,  in  the  month 
of  April  or  May,  1609.  Here  Jie  learned  from 
common  rumour  that  a  Dutchman  had  presented 
to  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  an  optical  instrument, 
which  possessed  the  singular  property  of  causing 
distant  objects  to  appear  nearer  the  observer.  This 
Dutchman  was  Hans  or  John  Lippershey,  who,  as 
has  been  clearly  proved  by  the  late  Professor  Moll 
of  Utrecht,*  was  in  the*  possession  of  a  telescope 
made  by  himself  so  early  as  2d  of  OctobeV,  1608. 
A  few  days  afterward,  the  truth  of  this  report  was 
confirmed  by  a  letter  which  Galileo  received  from 
James  Badorere  at  Paris,  and  he  immediately  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  consideration  of  the  subject. 
On  the  first  night  after  his  return  to  Padua,  he 
found  in  the  doctrines  of  refraction  the  prihciple 
which  he  sought.  He  placed  at  the  ends  of  a  lead- 
en tube  two  spectacle  glasses,  both  of  which  were 
plane  on  one  side,  while  one  of  them  had  its  other 
side  convex,  and  the  other  its  second  side  concave  ; 
and,  having  applied  his  eye  to.  the  concave  glass, 
he  saw  objects  pretty  large  and  pretty  near  him. 

*  On  the  First  Invention  of  Telescopes. — Journ.  R.  In- 
8tie.,  1831,  vol.  i.,  p.  496. 


GALILEO.  33 

This  little  instrument,  which  magnified  only  three 
times,  he  carried  in  triumph  to  Venice,  where  it 
excited  the  most  intense  interest.  Crowds  of  the 
principal  citizens  flocked  to  his  house  to  see  the 
magical  toy  ;  and,  after  nearly  a  month  had  been 
spent  in  gratifying  this  epidemical  curiosity,  Gali. 
leo  was  led  to  understand  from  Leonardo  Deodati, 
the  doge  of  Venice,  that  the  Senate  would  be  high- 
ly gratified  by  obtaining  possession  of  so  extraor- 
dinary an  instrument.  Galileo  instantly  complied 
with  the  wishes  of  his  patrons,  who  acknowledged 
the  present  by  a  mandate  conferring  upon  him  for 
life  his  professorship  at  Padua,  and  generously  rais- 
ing his  salary  from  520  to  1000  florins.* 

Although  we  cannot  doubt  the  veracity  of  Gal- 
ileo when  he  affirms  that  he  had  never  seen  any 
of  the  Dutch  telescopes,  yet  it  is  expressly  stated 
by  Fuccarius  that  one  of  these  instruments  had  at 
this  time  been  brought  to  Florence ;  and  Sirturus 
assures  us  that  a  Frenchman,  calling  himself  a 
partner  of  the  Dutch  inventor,  came  to  Milan  in 
May,  1609,  and  offered  a  telescope  to  the  Count 
de  Fuentes.  In  a  letter  from  Lorenzo  Pignoria  to 
Paolo  Gualdo,  dated  from  Padua  on  the  31st  of 
August,  1609,  it  is  expressly  said  that,  at  the  re- 
election of  the  professors,  Galileo  had  contrived  to 
obtain  1000  florins  for  life,  which  was  alleged  to 
*  Viviani  Vita  del1  Galileo,  p.  69. 


34  GALILEO. 

be  on  account  of  an  eyeglass  like  the  one  which 
was  sent  from  Flanders  to  the  Cardinal  Bor- 
ghese. 

In  a  memoir  so  brief  and  general  as  the  present, 
it  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss  the  history  of 
this  extraordinary  invention.  We  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  asserting  that  a  method  of  magnifying  dis- 
tant objects  was  known  to  Baptista  Porta  and  oth- 
ers ;  but  it  seems  to  be  equally  certain  that  an  in- 
strument for  producing  these  effects  was  first  con- 
structed in  Holland,  and  that  it  was  from  that 
kingdom  that  Galileo  derived  the  knowledge  of  its 
existence.  In  considering  the  contending  claims, 
which  have  been  urged  with  all  the  ardour  and 
partiality  of  national  feeling,  it  has  been  generally 
overlooked,  that  a  single  convex  tens,  whose  focal 
length  exceeds  the  distance  at  which  we  examine 
minute  objects,  performs  the  part  of  a  telescope 
when  an  eye  placed  behind  it  sees  distinctly  the 
inverted  image  which  it  forms.  A  lens  twenty 
feet  in  focal  length  will  in  this  manner  magnify 
twenty  times;  and  it  was  by  the  same  principle 
that  Sir  William  Herschel  discovered  a  new  satel- 
lite of  Saturn,  by  using  only  the  mirror  of  his  for. 
ty-feet  telescope.  The  instrument  presented  to 
Prince  Maurice,  and  which  the  Marquis  Spinola 
found  in  the  shop  of  John  Lippershey,  the  specta- 
cle-maker of  Middleburg,  must  have  been  an  as- 


GALILEO.  35 

tronomical  telescope  consisting  of  two  convex 
lenses.  Upon  this  supposition,  it  differed  from 
that  which  Galileo  constructed ;  and  the  Italian 
philosopher  will  be  justly  entitled  to  the  honour  of 
having  invented  that  form  of  the  telescope  which 
still  bears  his  name,  while  we  must  accord  to  the 
Dutch  optician  the  honour  of  having  previously 
invented  the  astronomical  telescope. 

The  interest  which  the  exhibition  of  the  tele- 
scope*  excited  at  Venice  did  not  soon  subside  :  Sir- 
turi*  describes  it  as  amounting  almost  to  phrensy. 
When  he  himself  had  succeeded  in  making  one  of 
these  instruments,  he  ascended  the  tower  of  St. 
Mark,  where  he  might  use  it  without  molestation. 
He  was  recognised,  however,  by  a  crowd  in  the 
street ;  and  such  was  the  eagerness  of  their  curi- 
osity, that  they  took  possession  of  the  wondrous 
tube,  and  detained  the  impatient  philosopher  for 
several  hours,  till  they  had  successively  witnessed 
its  effects.  Desirous  of  obtaining  the  same  grat- 
ification for  their  friends,  they  endeavoured  to  learn 
the  name  of  the  inn  at  which  he  lodged ;  but  Sir- 
turi  fortunately  overheard  their  inquiries,  and  quit- 
ted Venice  early  next  morning,  in  order  to  avoid  a 
second  visitation  of  this  new  school  of  philoso- 
pher. The  opticians  speedily  availed  themselves 
of  the  new  instrument.  Galileo's  tube — or  the 
*  De  Telescopic. 


36  GALILEO. 

double  eyeglass,  or  the  cylinder,  or  the  trunk,  as  it 
was  then  called,  for  Demisiano  had  not  yet  given  it 
the  appellation  of  telescope — was  manufactured  in 
great  quantities,  and  in  a  very  superior  manner. 
The  instruments  were  purchased  merely  as  philo- 
sophical toys,  and  were  carried  by  travellers  into 
every  corner  of  Europe. 

The  art  of  grinding  and  polishing  lenses  was  at 
this  time  very  imperfect.  Galileo,  and  those  whom 
he  instructed,  were  alone  capable  of  making*  toler- 
able instruments.  It  appears  from  the  testimony 
of  Gassendi  and  Gaertner,  that  in  1634  a  good  tel- 
escope could  not  be  procured  in  Paris,  Venice,  or 
Amsterdam ;  and  that,  even  in  1637,  there  was 
not  one  in  Holland  which  could  show  Jupiter's  disk 
well  defined. 

After  Galileo  had  completed  his  first  instrument, 
which  magnified  only  three  times,  he  executed  a 
larger  and  a  better  one,  with  a  power  of  about 
eight.  "  At  length,"  as  he  himself  remarks, "  spa- 
ring neither  labour  nor  expense,"  he  constructed 
an  instrument  so  excellent  that  it  bore  a  magnify- 
ing power  of  more  than  thirty  times. 

The  first  celestial  object  to  which  Galileo  appli- 
ed  his  telescope  was  the  moon,  which,  to  use  his 
own  words,  appeared  as  near  as  if  it  had  been  dis- 
tant  only  two  semidiameters  of  the  earth.  He 
then  directed  it  to  the  planets  and  the  fixed  stars, 


GALILEO.  37 

which  he  frequently  observed  with  "  incredible  de- 
light."* 

The  observations  which  he  made  upon  the  moon 
possessed  a  high  degree  of  interest.  The  general 
resemblance  of  its  surface  to  that  of  our  own  globe 
naturally  fixed  his  attention ;  and  he  was  soon  able 
to  trace,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  lunar  disk, 
ranges  of  mountains,  deep  hollows,  and  other  ine- 
qualities, which  reverberated  from  their  summits 
and  margins  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun,  while  the 
intervening  hollows  were  still  buried  in  darkness. 
The  dark  and  luminous  spaces  he  regarded  as  indi- 
cating seas  and  continents,  which  reflected,  in  differ- 
ent degrees,  the  incidental  light  of  the  sun  ;  and  he 
ascribed  the  phosphorescence,  as  it  has  been  im- 
properly called,  or  the  secondary  light  which  is 
seen  on  the  dark  limb  of  the  moon  in  her  first  and 
last  quarters,  to  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  light 
from  the  earth. 

These  discoveries  were  ill  received  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Aristotle.  According  to  their  precon- 
ceived opinions,  the  moon  was  perfectly  spherical 
and  absolutely  smooth ;  and  to  cover  it  with  mount- 
ains and  scoop  it  out  into  valleys  was  an  act  of 
impiety,  which  defaced  the  regular  forms  which 
Nature  herself  had  imprinted.  It  was  in  vain  that 
Galileo  appealed  to  the  evidence  of  observation,  and 
*  Incredibili  anirai  jucunditate. 

D 


38  GALILEO. 

to  the  actual  surface  of  our  own  globe.  The  very 
irregularities  on  the  moon  were,  in  his  opinion,  the 
proof  of  Divine  wisdom ;  and  had  its  surface  been 
absolutely  smooth,  it  would  have  been  "  but  a  vast 
unblessed  desert,  void  of  animals,  of  plants,  of 
cities,  and  of  men — the  abode  of  silence  and  inac- 
tion— senseless,  lifeless,  soulless,  and  stripped  of  all 
those  ornaments  which  now  render  it  so  varied  and 
so  beautiful." 

In  examining  the  fixed  stars  and  comparing  them 
with  the  planets,  Galileo  observed  a  remarkable 
difference  in  the  appearance  of  their  disks.  All 
the  planets  appeared  with  round  globular  disks  like 
the  moon,  whereas  the  fixed  stars  never  exhibited 
any  disk  at  all,  but  resembled  lucid  points  sending 
forth  twinkling  rays.  Stars  of  all  magnitudes  he 
found  to  have  the  same  appearance ;  those  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  magnitude  having  the  same  charac- 
ter, when  seen  through  a  telescope,  as  Sirius,  the 
largest  of  the  stars,  when  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
Upon  directing  his  telescope  to  nebulae  and  clusters 
of  stars,  he  was  delighted  to  find  that  they  consist- 
ed  of  great  numbers  of  stars  which  could  not  be 
recognised  by  unassisted  vision.  He  counted  no 
fewer  than/or^  in  the  cluster  called  the  Pleiades, 
or  Seven  Stars ;  and  he  has  given  us  drawings  of 
this  constellation,  as  well  as  of  the  belt  and  sword 
of  Orion,  and  of  the  nebula  of  Prsesepe.  In  the 


GALILEO.  39 

great  nebula  of  the  Milky  Way  he  descried  crowds 
of  minute  stars ;  and  he  concluded  that  this  singu- 
lar portion  of  the  heavens  derived  its  whiteness 
from  still  smaller  stars,  which  his  telescope  was 
unable  to  separate. 

Important  and  interesting  as  these  discoveries 
were,  they  were  thrown  into  the  shade  by  those  to 
which  he  was  led  during  an  accurate  examination 
of  the  planets  with  a  more  powerful  telescope. 
On  the  7th  of  January,  1610,  at  one  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  when  he  directed  his  telescope  to  Jupiter, 
he  observed  three  stars  near  the  body  of  the  planet, 
two  being  to  the  east  and  one  to  the  west  of  him. 
They  were  all  in  a  straight  line,  and  parallel  to  the 
ecliptic,  and  appeared  brighter  than  other  stars  of 
the  same  magnitude.  Believing  them  to  be  fixed 
stars,  he  paid  no  great  attention  to  their  distances 
from  Jupiter  and  from  one  another.  On  the  8th 
of  January,  however,  when,  from  some  cause  or 
other,*  he  had  been  led  to  observe  the  stars  again, 
he  found  a  very  different  arrangement  of  them :  all 
the  three  were  on  the  west  side  of  Jupiter,  nearer 
one  another  than  before,  and  almost  at  equal  dis- 
tances. Though  he  had  not  turned  his  attention 
to  the  extraordinary  fact  of  the  mutual  approach  of 
the  stars,  yet  he  began  to  consider  how  Jupiter 
could  be  found  to  the  east  of  the  three  stars,  when 

*  Nescio  quo  fato  ductus. 


40  GALILEO. 

but  the  day  before  he  had  been  to  the  west  of  two 
of  them.  The  only  explanation  which  he  could 
give  of  this  fact  was,  that  the  motion  of  Jupiter 
was  direct,  contrary  to  astronomical  calculations, 
and  that  he  had  got  before  these  two  stars  by  his 
own  motion. 

In  this  dilemma  between  the  testimony  of  his 
senses  and  the  results  of  his  calculation,  he  waited 
for  the  following  night  with  the  utmost  anxiety ; 
but  his  hopes  were  disappointed,  for  the  heavens 
were  wholly  veiled  in  clouds.  On  the  10th  two 
only  of  the  stars  appeared,  and  both  on  the  east  of 
the  planet.  As  it  was  obviously  impossible  that 
Jupiter  could  have  advanced  from  west  to  east  on 
the  8th  of  January,  and  from  east  to  west  on  the 
10th,  Galileo  was  forced  to  conclude  that  the  phe- 
nomenon which  he  had  observed  arose  from  the  mo- 
tion of  the  stars,  and  he  set  himself  to  observe  dil- 
igently their  change  of  place.  On  the  llth  there 
were  still  only  two  stars,  and  both  to  the  east  of 
Jupiter ;  but  the  more  eastern  star  was  now  twice 
as  large  as  the  other  one,  though  on  the  prece- 
ding night  they  had  been  perfectly  equal.  This 
fact  threw  a  new  light  upon  Galileo's  difficulties, 
and  he  immediately  drew  the  conclusion,  which  he 
considered  to  be  indubitable,  "  that  there  were  in  the 
heavens  three  stars  which  revolved  round  Jupiter,  in 
the  same  manner  as  Venus  and  Mercury  revolve 


GALILEO.  41 

round  the  sun."  On  the  12th  of  January  he  again 
observed  them  in  new  positions  and  of  different 
magnitudes,  and  on  the  13th  he  discovered  a 
fourth  star,  which  completed  the  four  secondary 
planets  with  which  Jupiter  is  surrounded. 

Galileo  continued  his  observations  on  these  bod- 
ies every  clear  night  till  the  22d  of  March,  and  stud- 
ied their  motions  in  reference  to  fixed  stars  that 
were  at  the  same  time  within  the  field  of  his  tele- 
scope. Having  thus  clearly  established  that  the 
four  new  stars  were  satellites  or  moons,  which  re. 
volved  round  Jupiter  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
moon  revolves  round  our  own  globe,  he  drew  up  an 
account  of  his  discovery,  in  which  he  gave  to  the 
four  new  bodies  the  names  of  the  Medicean  Stars, 
in  honour  of  his  patron,  Cosmo  de  Medici,  grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany.  This  work,  under  the  title  of 
"Nuncius  Sidereus,"  or  the  "Sidereal  Messenger," 
was  dedicated  to  the  same  prince  ;  and  the  dedica- 
tion bears  the  date  of  the  24th  of  March,  only  two 
days  after  he  concluded  his  observations. 

The  importance  of  this  great  discovery  was  in- 
stantly  felt  by  the  enemies  as  well  as  by  the  friends 
of  the  Copernican  system.  The  planets  had  hith- 
erto been  distinguished  from  the  fixed  stars  only  by 
their  relative  change  of  place,  but  the  telescope 
proved  them  to  be  bodies  so  near  to  our  own  globe 
as  to  exhibit  well-defined  disks,  while  the  fixed  stars 
D2 


42  GALILEO. 

retained,  even  when  magnified,  the  minuteness  of 
remote  and  lucid  points.  The  system  of  Jupiter, 
illuminated  by  four  moons  performing  their  revolu- 
tions in  different  and  regular  periods,  exhibited  to 
the  proud  reason  of  man  the  comparative  insignifi- 
cance of  the  globe  he  inhabits,  and  proclaimed  in 
impressive  language  that  that  globe  was  not  the 
centre  of  the  universe. 

The  reception  which  these  discoveries  met  with 
from  Kepler  is  highly  interesting,  and  characteris- 
tic of  the  genius  of  that  great  man.  He  was  one 
day  sitting  idle  and  thinking  of  Galileo,  when  his 
friend  Wachenfels  stopped  his  carriage  at  his  door 
to  communicate  to  him  the  intelligence.  "  Such  a 
fit  of  wonder,"  says  he,  "seized  me  at  a  report 
which  seemed  to  be  so  very  absurd,  and  I  was 
thrown  into  such  agitation  at  seeing  an  old  dispute 
between  us  decided  in  this  way,  that  between  his 
joy,  my  colouring,  and  the  laughter  of  both,  con- 
founded as  we  were  by  such  a  novelty,  we  were 
hardly  capable,  he  of  speaking,  or  I  of  listening. 
On  our  parting,  I  immediately  began  to  think  how 
there  could  be  any  addition  to  the  number  of  the 
planets  without  overturning  my  *  Cosmographic 
Mystery,'  according  to  which  Euclid's  five  regular 
solids  do  not  allow  more  than  six  planets  round  the 
sun.  *  *  *  I  am  so  far  from  disbelieving  the  ex- 
istence of  the  four  circumjovial  planets,  that  I  long 


GALILEO.  43 

for  a  telescope,  to  anticipate  you,  if  possible,  in 
discovering  two  round  Mars,  as  the  proportion 
seems  to  require,  six  or  eight  round  Saturn,  and 
perhaps  one  each  round  Mercury  and  Venus." 

In  a  very  different  spirit  did  the  Aristotelians  re- 
ceive  the  "  Sidereal  Messenger"  of  Galileo.  The 
principal  professor  of  philosophy  at  Padua  resisted 
Galileo's  repeated  and  urgent  entreaties  to  look  at 
the  moon  and  planets  through  his  telescope;  and 
he  even  laboured  to  convince  the  grand-duke  that 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter  could  not  possibly  exist. 
Sizzi,  an  astronomer  of  Florence,  maintained  that, 
as  there  were  only  seven  apertures  in  the  head — 
two  eyes,  two  ears,  two  nostrils,  and  one  mouth — 
and  as  there  were  only  seven  metals,  and  seven 
days  in  the  week,  so  there  could  be  only  seven 
planets.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  admitted  the 
visibility  of  the  four  satellites  through  the  tele- 
scope ;  but  he  argues  that,  as  they  are  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  they  can  exercise  no  influence  on 
the  earth  ;  and  being  useless,  they  do  not  therefore 
exist. 

A  protege  of  Kepler's,  of  the  name  of  Horky, 
wrote  a  volume  against  Galileo's  discovery,  after 
having  declared  "  that  he  would  never  concede  his 
four  new  planets  to  that  Italian  from  Padua,  even 
if  he  should  die  for  it."  This  resolute  Aristotelian 
was  at  no  loss  for  arguments.  He  asserted  that 


44  GALILEO. 

he  had  examined  the  heavens  through  Galileo 's  own 
glass,  and  that  no  such  thing  as  a  satellite  existed 
round  Jupiter.  He  affirmed  that  he  did  not  more 
surely  know  that  he  had  a  soul  in  his  body,  than 
that  reflected  rays  are  the  sole  cause  of  Galileo's 
erroneous  observations ;  and  that  the  only  use  of 
the  new  planets  was  to  gratify  Galileo's  thirst  for 
gold,  and  afford  to  himself  a  subject  of  discussion. 

When  Horky  first  presented  himself  to  Kepler 
after  the  publication  of  this  work,  the  opinion  of 
his  patron  was  announced  to  him  by  a  burst  of  in- 
dignation which  overwhelmed  the  astonished  au. 
thor.  Horky  supplicated  mercy  for  his  offence ; 
and,  as  Kepler  himself  informed  Galileo,  he  took 
him  again  into  favour  on  the  condition  that  Kepler 
was  to  show  him  Jupiter's  satellites,  and  that  Hor- 
ky was  not  only  to  see  them,  but  to  admit  their  ex- 
istence. 

When  the  spirit  of  philosophy  had  thus  left  the 
individuals  who  bore  so  unworthily  her  sacred 
name,  it  was  fortunate  for  science  that  it  found  a 
refuge  among  princes.  Notwithstanding  the  reit- 
erated logic  of  his  philosophical  professor  at  Padua, 
Cosmo  de  Medici  preferred  the  testimony  of  his 
senses  to  the  syllogisms  of  his  instructer.  He 
observed  the  new  planets  several  times  along  with 
Galileo  at  Pisa,  and  when  he  parted  with  him  he 
gave  him  a  present  worth  more  than  1000  florins, 


GALILEO.  45 

and  concluded  that  liberal  arrangement  to  which 
we  have  already  referred. 

As  philosopher  and  principal  mathematician  to 
the  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany,  Galileo  now  took  up 
his  residence  at  Florence,  with  a  salary  of  1000 
florins.  No  official  duties,  excepting  that  of  lee. 
turing  occasionally  to  sovereign  princes,  were  at- 
tached to  this  appointment ;  and  it  was  expressly  - 
stipulated  that  he  should  enjoy  the  most  perfect 
leisure  to  complete  his  treatises  on  the  constitution 
of  the  universe,  on  mechanics,  and  on  local  motion. 
The  resignation  of  his  professorship  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua,  which  was  the  necessary  conse- 
quence of  his  new  appointment,  created  much  dis- 
satisfaction ;  but,  though  many  of  his  former  friends 
refused  at  first  to  hold  any  communication  with 
him,  this  excitement  gradually  subsided,  and  the 
Venetian  senate  at  last  appreciated  the  feelings  as 
well  as  the  motives  which  induced  a  stranger  to 
accept  of  promotion  in  his  native  land. 

While  Galileo  was  enjoying  the  reward  and  the 
fame  of  his  great  discovery,  a  new  species  of  en- 
mity  was  roused  against  him.  Simon  Mayer,  an 
astronomer  of  no  character,  pretended  that  he  had 
discovered  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  before  Galileo, 
and  that  his  first  observation  was  made  on  the  29th 
of  December,  1609.  Other  astronomers  announ- 
ced the  discovery  of  new  satellites  :  Schemer  reck- 


46  GALILEO. 

oned  five,  Rheita  nine,  and  others  found  even  so 
many  as  twelve  :  these  satellites,  however,  were 
found  to  be  only  fixed  stars.  The  names  of  Via- 
dislavian,  Agrippine,  Uranodavian,  and  Ferdinan- 
dotertian,  which  were  hastily  given  to  these  com- 
mon  telescopic  stars,  soon  disappeared  from  the 
page  of  science,  and  even  the  splendid*  telescopes 
of  modern  times  have  not  been  able  to  add  another 
gem  to  the  diadem  of  Jupiter. 

A  modern  astronomer  of  no  mean  celebrity  has, 
even  in  the  present  day,  endeavoured  to  rob  Gali- 
leo of  this  staple  article  of  his  reputation.  From 
a  careless  examination  of  the  papers  of  our  cele- 
brated countryman,  Thomas  Harriot,  which  Baron 
Zach  had  made  in  1784,  at  Petworth,  the  seat  of 
Lord  Egremont,  this  astronomer  has  asserted*  that 
Harriot  first  observed  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  on 
the  16th  of  January,  1610,  and  continued  his  ob- 
servations till  the  25th  of  February,  1612.  Baron 
Zach  adds  the  following  extraordinary  conclusion  : 
"  Galileo  pretends  to  have  discovered  them  on  the 
7th  of  January,  1610  ;  so  that  it  is  not  improbable 
that  Harriot  was  likewise  the  first  discoverer  of 
these  attendants  of  Jupiter."  In  a  communication 
which  I  received  from  Dr.  Robertson,  of  Oxford, 
in  1822,f  he  informed  me  that  he  had  examined  a 

*  Berlin  Ephemeris,  1788. 

t  Edin.  Phil.  Journ.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  313. 


GALILEO.  47 

portion  of  Harriot's  papers,  entitled  "  De  Jovialibus 
Planetis,"  and  that  it  appears  from  two  pages  of 
these  papers  that  Harriot  first  observed  Jupiter's 
satellites  on  the  11  fh  of  October,  1610.  These  ob- 
servations are  accompanied  with  rough  drawings 
of  the  positions  of  the  satellites,  and  rough  calcu- 
lations of  their  periodical  revolutions.  My  friend, 
Professor  Rigaud,*  who  has  very  recently  examin- 
ed the  Harriot  MSS.,  has  confirmed  the  accuracy 
of  Dr.  Robertson's  observations,  and  has  thus  re- 
stored to  Galileo  the  honour  of  being  the  first  and 
the  sole  discoverer  of  these  secondary  planets. 

*  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Dr.  Bradley,  Oxford,  1832, 
p.  533.     See  also  his  Supplement,  Oxford,  1833,  p.  17. 


48  GALILEO. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Galileo  announces  his  Discoveries  in  Enigmas. — Discovers 
the  Crescent  of  Venus  ;  the  Ring  of  Saturn  ;  the  Spots  on 
the  Sun. — Similar  Observations  made  in  England  by  Har- 
riot.— Claims  of  Fabricius  and  Scheiner  to  the  Discovery  of 
the  Solar  Spots. — Galileo's  Letters  to  Velser  on  the  Claims 
of  Scheiner. — His  Residence  at  the  Villa  of  Salviati. — 
Composes  his  Work  on  Floating  Bodies,  which  involves 
him  in  new  Controversies. 

THE  great  success  which  attended  the  first  tele- 
scopic  observations  of  Galileo  induced  him  to  ap- 
ply his  best  instruments  to  the  other  planets  of  our 
system.  The  attempts  which  had  been  made  to 
deprive  him  of  the  honour  of  some  of  his  discover- 
ies,  combined,  probably,  with  a  desire  to  repeat  his 
observations  with  better  telescopes,  led  him  to  an- 
nounce his  discoveries  under  the  veil  of  an  enigma, 
and  to  invite  astronomers  to  declare,  within  a  giv- 
en time,  if  they  had  observed  any  new  phenomena 
in  the  heavens. 

Before  the  close  of  1610  Galileo  excited  the  cu- 
riosity of  astronomers  by  the  publication  of  his  first 
enigma.  Kepler  and  others  tried  in  vain  to  deci- 
pher it ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  Emperor  Ro- 


GALILEO.  49 

dolph  requesting  a  solution  of  the  puzzle,  Galileo 
sent  him  the  following  clew : 

"  Altissimam  planetam  tergeminam  observavi." 

I  have  observed  that  the  most  remote  planet  is  triple. 
In  explaining  more  fully  the  nature  of  his  observa- 
tion, Galileo  remarked  that  Saturn  was  not  a  sin- 
gle star,  but  three  together,  nearly  touching  one 
another.  He  described  them  as  having  no  relative 
motion,  and  as  having  the  form  of  three  o's,  name- 
ly, oOo,  the  central  one  being  larger  than  those  on 
each  side  of  it. 

Although  Galileo  had  announced  that  nothing 
new  appeared  in  the  other  planets,  yet  he  soon 
communicated  to  the  world  another  discovery  of  no 
slight  interest.  The  enigmatical  letters  in  which 
it  was  concealed  formed  the  following  sentence : 

"  Cynthiae  figuras  aemulatur  mater  Amorum." 

Venus  rivals  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
Hitherto  Galileo  had  observed  Venus  when  her 
disk  was  largely  illuminated ;  but  having  directed 
his  telescope  to  her  when  she  was  not  far  removed 
from  the  sun,  he  saw  her  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
resembling  exactly  the  moon  at  the  same  elonga- 
tion. He  continued  to  observe  her  night  after 
night,  during  the  whole  time  that  she  could  be  seen 
in  the  course  of  her  revolution  round  the  sun,  and 
he  found  that  she  exhibited  the  very  same  phases 
E 


50  GALILEO. 

which  resulted  from  her  motion  round  that  lumi- 
nary. 

Galileo  had  long  contemplated  a  visit  to  the  me- 
tropolis  of  Italy,  and  he  accordingly  carried  his 
intentions  into  effect  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1611.  Here  he  was  received  with  that  distinction 
which  was  due  to  his  great  talents  and  his  extend- 
ed reputation.  Princes,  'cardinals,  and  prelates 
hastened  to  do  him  honour ;  and  even  those  who 
discredited  his  discoveries  and  dreaded  their  results 
vied  with  the  true  friends  of  science  in  their  anxi- 
ety to  see  the  intellectual  wonder  of  the  age. 

In  order  to  show  the  new  celestial  phenomena  to 
his  friends  at  Rome,  Galileo  took  with  him  his  best 
telescope ;  and  as  he  had  discovered  the  spots  on 
the  sun's  surface  in  October  or  November,  1610, 
or  even  earlier,*  he  had  the  gratification  of  exhib- 
iting them  to  his  admiring  disciples.  He  accord- 
ingly erected  his  telescope  in  the  Quirinal  garden, 
belonging  to  Cardinal  Bandini ;  and  in  April,  1611, 
he  showed  them  to  his  friends  in  many  of  their 
most  interesting  variations.  From  their  change  of 
position  on  the  sun's  disk,  Galileo  at  first  inferred, 
either  that  the  sun  revolved  about  an  axis,  or  that 
other  planets,  like  Venus  and  Mercury,  revolved  so 

*  Professor  Rigaud  is  of  opinion  that  Galileo  had  discovered 
the  solar  spots  at  an  earlier  period  than  eighteen  months  be- 
fore May,  1612. 


GALILEO.  51 

near  the  sun  as  to  appear  like  black  spots  when 
they  were  opposite  to  his  disk.  Upon  continuing 
his  observations,  however,  he  saw  reason  to  aban- 
don this  hasty  opinion.  He  found  that  the  spots 
must  be  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  sun ; 
that  their  figures  were  irregular ;  that  they  had 
different  degrees  of  darkness ;  that  one  spot  would 
often  divide  itself  into  three  or  four ;  that  three  or 
four  spots  would  often  unite  themselves  into  one ; 
and  that  all  the  spots  revolved  regularly  with  the 
sun,  whi|Ji  appeared  to  complete  its  revolution  in 
about  twenty-eight  days. 

Previous  to  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  spots 
had  been  more  than  once  seen  on  the  sun's  disk 
with  the  unassisted  eye.  But  even  if  these  were 
of  the  same  character  as  those  which  Galileo  and 
others  observed,  we  cannot  consider  them  as  anti- 
cipations of  their  discovery  by  the  telescope.  As 
the  telescope  was  now  in  the  possession  of  several 
astronomers,  Galileo  began  to  have  many  rivals  in 
discovery ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  claims  of  Har- 
riot, Fabricius,  and  Scheiner,  it  is  now  placed  be- 
yond the  reach  of  doubt  that  he  was  the  first  dis- 
coverer of  the  solar  spots.  From  the  communi- 
cation which  I  received  in  1822  from  the  late  Dr. 
Robertson,  of  Oxford,*  it  appeared  that  Thomas 
Harriot  had  observed  the  solar  spots  on  the  8th  of 
*  See  page  46. 


52  GALILEO. 

December,  1610  ;  but  his  manuscripts,  in  Lord 
Egremont's  possession,  incontestably*  prove  that 
his  regular  observations  on  the  spots,  did  not  com- 
mence till  December  1, 1611,  although  he  had  seen 
the  spots  at  the  date  above  mentioned,  and  that  they 
were  continued  till  the  18th  of  January,  1C13. 
The  observations  which  he  has  recorded  are  199  in 
number,  and  the  accounts  of  them  are  accompani- 
ed with  rough  drawings  representing  the  number, 
position,  and  magnitude  of  the  spots.f  In  the  obser- 
vation of  Harriot,  made  on  the  8th  Decem\pr,  1610, 
before  he  knew  of  Galileo's  discovery,  he  saw  three 
spots  of  the  sun,  which  he  has  represented  in  a  di- 
agram. The  sun  was  then  7°  or  8°  high,  and  there 
was  a  frost  and  a  mist,  which  no  doubt  acted  as  a 
darkening  glass.  Harriot  does  not  apply  the  name 
of  spots  to  what  he  noticed  in  this  observation,  and 
he  does  not  enumerate  it  among  the  199  observa- 
tions above  mentioned.  Professor  RigaudJ  con- 
siders it "  a  misapplication  of  terms  to  call  such  an 
observation  a  discovery  ;"  but,  with  all  the  respect 
which  we  feel  for  the  candour  of  this  remark,  we 

*  These  interesting  MSS.  I  have  had  the  good  fortune  of 
seeing  in  the  possession  of  my  much  valued  friend,  the  late 
Professor  Rigaud,  of  Oxford. 

t  Edin.  Phil.  Journ.,  1822,  vol.  vi.,  p.  317.  See  Rigaud's 
Life  of  Bradley,  Supplement,  p.  31. 

t  Id.  It.,  p.  37,  38. 


GALILEO.  53 

are  disposed  to  confer  on  Harriot  the  merit  of  an 
original  discoverer  of  the  spots  on  the  sun. 

Another  candidate  for  the  honour  of  discovering 
the  spots  of  the  sun  was  John  Fabricius,  who  un- 
doubtedly saw  them  previous  to  June,  1611.  The 
dedication  of  the  work*  in  which  he  has  recorded 
his  observation  bears  the  date  of  the  13th  of  June, 
1611  ;  and  it  is  obvious,  from  the  work  itself,  that 
he  had  seen  the  spots  about  the  end  of  the  year 
1610  ;  but  as  there  is  no  proof  that  he  saw  them 
before  October,  we  are  compelled  to  assign  the  pri- 
ority of  the  discovery  to  the  Italian  astronomer. 

The  claim  of  Scheiner,  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Ingolstadt,  is  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
history  of  Galileo.  This  learned  astronomer  hav- 
ing, early  in  1611,  turned  his  telescope  to  the  sun, 
necessarily  discovered  the  spots  which  at  that  time 
covered  his  disk.  Light  flying  clouds  happened  at 
the  time  to  weaken  the  intensity  of  his  light,  so  that 
he  was  able  to  show  the  spots  to  his  pupils.  These 
observations  were  not  published  till  January,  1612  ; 
and  they  appeared  in  the  form  of  three  letters,  ad- 
dressed to  Mark  Velser,  one  of  the  magistrates  of 
Augsburg,  under  the  signature  of  Appellespost  Tab- 
ulam.  Scheiner,  who  many  years  afterward  pub- 

*  Job.  Fabricii  Phrysii  de  Maculis  in  Sole  observatis,  et  ap- 
parente  earum  cum  Sole  conversione,  Narratio,  Wittemb., 
1611. 

E2 


54  GALILEO. 

lished  an  elaborate  work  on  the  subject,  adopted  the 
same  idea  which  had  at  first  occurred  to  Galileo : 
that  the  spots  were  the  dark  sides  of  planets  revolv- 
ing round  and  near  the  sun.* 

*  It  does  not  appear  from  the  history  of  solar  observations 
at  what  time,  and  by  whom,  coloured  glasses  were  first  intro- 
'duced  for  permitting  the  eye  to  look  at  the  sun  with  impunity. 
Fabricius  was  obviously  quite  ignorant  of  the  use  of  coloured 
glasses.  He  observed  the  sun  when  he  was  in  the  horizon, 
and  when  his  brilliancy  was  impaired  by  the  interposition  of 
thin  clouds  and  floating  vapours  ;  and  he  advises  those  who 
may  repeat  his  observations  to  admit  at  first  to  the  eye  a  small 
portion  of  the  sun's  light,  till  it  is  gradually  accustomed  to  its 
full  splendour.  When  the  sun's  altitude  became  considerable, 
Fabricius  gave  up  his  observations,  which  he  often  continued 
so  long  that  he  was  scarcely  able,  for  two  days  together,  to  see 
objects  with  their  usual  distinctness.  Fabricius  speaks  of  ob- 
serving the  sun  by  admitting  his  rays  through  a  small  hole  into 
a  dark  room,  and  receiving  his  image  on  paper  ;  but  he  says 
nothing  about  a  lens  or  a  telescope  being  applied  to  the  hole  ; 
and  he  does  not  say  that  he  saw  the  spots  of  the  sun  in  this 
way.  Harriot  also  viewed  the  solar  spots  when  the  sun  was 
near  the  horizon,  or  was  visible  through  "  thick  ayer  and  thin 
cloudes,"  or  through  thin  mist.  On  December  21,  1611,  at  a 
quarter  past  2  P.M.,  he  observed  the  spots  when  the  sky  was 
perfectly  clear,  but  his  "  sight  was  after  dim  for  an  houre." 

Scheiner,  in  his  "  Appelles  post  Tabulam,"  describes  four 
different  ways  of  viewing  the  spots  ;  one  of  which  is  by  the 
interposition  of  Uue  or  green  glasses.  His  first  method  was 
to  observe  the  sun  near  the  horizon  ;  the  second  was  to  view 
him  through  a  transparent  cloud ;  the  third  was  to  look  at  him 
through  his  telescope  with  a  blue  or  a  green  glass  of  a  proper 


GALILEO.  55 

On  the  publication  of  Schemer's  letters,  Velser 
transmitted  a  copy  of  them  to  his  friend  Galileo, 
with  the  request  that  he  would  favour  him  with  his 
opinion  of  the  new  phenomena.  After  some  delay, 
Galileo  addressed  three  letters  to  Velser,  in  which 
he  combated  the  opinions  of  Scheiner  on  the  cause 
of  the  spots.  The  first  of  these  letters  was  dated 
the  4th  of  May,  1612  ;*  but,  though  the  controver- 
sy was  carried  on  in  the  language  of  mutual  re- 
spect and  esteem,  it  put  an  end  to  the  friendship 
which  had  existed  between  the  two  astronomers. 
In  these  letters  Galileo  showed  that  the  spots  often 
dispersed  like  vapours  or  clouds  ;  that  they  some- 
times had  a  duration  of  only  one  or  two  days,  and 
at  other  times  of  thirty  or  forty  days ;  that  they 
contracted  in  their  breadth  when  they  approached 
the  sun's  limb,  without  any  diminution  of  their 
length  ;  that  they  describe  circles  parallel  to  each 
other  ;  that  the  monthly  rotation  of  the  sun  again 
brings  the  same  spots  into  view  ;'  and  that  they  are 
seldom  seen  at  a  greater  distance  than  30°  from 
the  sun's  equator.  Galileo  likewise  discovered  on 
the  sun's  disc/acw&s,  or  luculi,  as  they  were  called, 

thickness,  and  plane  on  both  sides,  or  to  use  a  thin  blue  glass 
when  the  sun  was  covered  with  a  thin  vapour  or  cloud  ;  and 
the  fourth  method  was  to  begin  and  observe  the  sun  at  his 
margin,  till  the  eye  gradually  reached  the  middle  of  his  disk. 
*  The  original  of  this  letter  is  in  the  British  Museum. 


56  GALILEO. 

which  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  common  ones 
but  in  their  being  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  sun's 
surface.* 

In  the  last  of  the  letters  which  our  author  ad- 
dressed  to  Velser,  and  which  was  written  in  De- 
cember, 1612,  he  recurs  to  his  former  discovery  of 
the  elongated  shape,  or,  rather,  the  triple  structure 
of  Saturn.  The  singular  figure  which  he  had  ob- 
served in  this  planet  had  entirely  disappeared ;  and 
he  evidently  announces  the  fact  to  Velser,  lest  it 
should  be  used  by  his  enemies  to  discredit  the  ac- 
curacy of  his  observations.  "  Looking  on  Saturn," 
says  he, "  within  these  few  days,  I  found  it  solitary, 
without  the  assistance  of  its  accustomed  stars,  and, 
in  short,  perfectly  round  and  denned  like  Jupiter ; 
and  such  it  still  remains.  Now  what  can  be  said 
of  so  strange  a  metamorphosis  ?  Are  the  two 
smaller  stars  consumed  like  the  spots  on  the  sun  ? 
Have  they  suddenly  vanished  and  fled  ?  or  was  the 
appearance  indeed  fraud  and  illusion,  with  which 
the  glasses  have  for  so  long  a  time  mocked  me,  and 
so  many  others  who  have  often  observed  with  me  ? 
Now  perhaps  the  time  is  come  to  revive  the  with- 
ering hopes  of  those  who,  guided  by  more  profound 
contemplations,  have  followed  all  the  fallacies  of 
the  new  observations,  and  recognised  their  impos- 

*  See  Istoria  e  Dimonstrazioni,  intorno  alle  macchie  solare, 
Roma,  1616.  See  Opere  di  Galileo,  vol.  v.,  p.  131-293. 


GALILEO.  57 

sibilities.  I  cannot  resolve  what  to  say  in  a  chance 
so  strange,  so  new,  and  so  unexpected  ;  the  short- 
ness of  the  time,  the  unexampled  occurrence,  the 
weakness  of  my  intellect,  and  the  terror  of  being 
mistaken,  have  greatly  confounded  me."  Although 
Galileo  struggled  to  obtain  a  solution  of  this  mys- 
tery, yet  he  had  not  the  good  fortune  to  succeed. 
He  imagined  that  the  two  smaller  stars  would  re- 
appear in  consequence  of  the  supposed  revolution 
of  the  planet  round  its  axis  ;  but  the  discovery  of 
the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  of  the  obliquity  of  its  plane 
to  the  ecliptic,  was  necessary  to  explain  the  phe- 
nomena which  were  so  perplexing  to  our  author. 

The  ill  health  to  which  Galileo  was  occasional- 
ly subject,  and  the  belief  that  the  air  of  Florence 
was  prejudicial  to  his  complaints,  induced  him  to 
spend  much  of  his  time  at  Selve,  the  villa  of  his 
friend  Salviati.  This  eminent  individual  had  ever 
been  the  warmest  friend  of  Galileo,  and  seems  to 
have  delighted  in  drawing  round  him  the  scientific 
genius  of  the  age.  He  was  a  member  of  the  cele- 
brated Lyncaean  Society  founded  by  Prince  Fred- 
erigo  Cesi ;  and  though  he  is  not  known  as  the 
author  of  any  important  discovery,  yet  he  has  earn- 
ed by  his  liberality  to  science  a  glorious  name, 
which  will  be  indissolubly  united  with  the  immortal 
destiny  of  Galileo. 

The  subject  of  floating  bridges  having  been  dis- 


68  GALILEO. 

cussed  at  one  of  the  scientific  parties  which  had 
assembled  at  the  house  of  Salviati,  a  difference  of 
opinion  arose  respecting  the  influence  of  the  shape 
of  bodies  on  their  disposition  to  float  or  to  sink  in 
a  fluid.  Contrary  to  the  general  opinion,  Galileo 
undertook  to  prove  that  it  depended  on  other  causes ; 
and  he  was  thus  led  to  compose  his  discourse  on 
floating  bodies,*  which  was  published  in  1612,  and 
dedicated  to  Cosmo  de  Medici.  This  work  con- 
tains many  ingenious  experiments,  and  much  acute 
reasoning  in  support  of  the  true  principles  of  hy- 
drostatics ;  and  it  is  now  chiefly  remarkable  as  a 
specimen  of  the  sagacity  and  intellectual  power  of 
its  author.  Like  all  his  other  works,  it  encounter- 
ed the  most  violent  opposition ;  and  Galileo  was 
more  than  once  summoned  into  the  field  to  repel 
the  aggressions  of  his  ignorant  and  presumptuous 
opponents.  The  first  attack  upon  it  was  made  by 
Ptolemy  Nozzolini,  in  a  letter  to  Marzemedici, 
archbishop  of  Florence  ;f  and  to  this  Galileo  re- 
plied in  a  letter  addressed  to  his  antagonist. £  A 
more  elaborate  examination  of  it  was  published  by 
Lodovico  della  Columbe,  and  another  by  M.  Vin- 

*  Discorso  intorno  alle  cose  che  stanno  in  su  Pacqua,  o 
che  in  quella  si  muovono.  Opere  di  Galileo,  vol.  ii.,  p.  165- 
311. 

t  Opere  di  Galileo,  vol.  ii.,  p.  355-367. 

t  Ibid.,  367-390. 


GALILEO.  59 

cenzo  di  Grazia.  To  these  attacks  a  minute  and 
overwhelming  answer  was  printed  in  the  name  of 
Benedetti  Castelli,  the  friend  and  pupil  of  Galileo  ; 
but  it  was  discovered,  some  years  after  Galileo's 
death,  that  he  was  himself  the  author  of  this  work.* 

*  These  three  treatises  occupy  the  whole  of  the  third  vol- 
ume of  the  Opere  di  Galileo. 


60  GALILEO. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Galileo  treats  his  Opponents  with  Severity  and  Sarcasm. — He 
is  aided  by  the  Skeptics  of  the  Day.— The  Church  Party  the 
most  powerful. — Galileo  commences  the  Attack,  and  is  an- 
swered by  Caccini,  a  Dominican. — Galileo's  Letter  to  the 
Grand-Duchess  of  Tuscany,  in  support  of  the  Motion  of 
the  Earth  and  the  Stability  of  the  Sun. — Galileo  visits 
Rome. — Is  summoned  before  the  Inquisition,  and  renounces 
his  Opinions  as  heretical. — The  Inquisition  denounces  the 
Copernican  System. — Galileo  has  an  Audience  of  the 
Pope,  but  still  maintains  his  Opinions  in  private  Society. — 
Proposes  to  find  out  the  Longitude  at  Sea  by  means  of  Ju- 
piter's Satellites. — His  Negotiation  on  this  Subject  with 
the  Court  of  Spain. — Its  Failure. — He  is  unable  to  observe 
the  three  Comets  of  1618,  but  is  involved  in  the  Contro- 
versy to  which  they  gave  rise. 

I  THE  current  of  Galileo's  life  had  hitherto  flowed  I 
1  in  a  smooth  and  unobstructed  channel.  He  had  now 
attained  the  highest  objects  of  earthly  ambition. 
His  discoveries  had  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
great  men  of  the  age  ;  he  possessed  a  professional 
income  far  beyond  his  wants,  and  even  beyond  his 
anticipations  ;  and,  what  is  still  dearer  to  a  philos- 
opher, he  enjoyed  the  most  perfect  leisure  for  car- 
rying on  and  completing  his  discoveries.  The  op- 
position which  these  discoveries  encountered  was 


GALILEO.  61 

to  him  more  a  subject  for  triumph  than  for  sorrow. 
Prejudice  and  ignorance  were  his  only  enemies ; 
and  if  they  succeeded  for  a  while  in  harassing  his 
march,  it  was  only  to  lay  a  foundation  for  fresh 
achievements.  He  who  contends  for  truths  which 
he  has  himself  been  permitted  to  discover,  may 
well  sustain  the  conflict  in  which  presumption  and 
error  are  destined  to  fall.  The  public  tribunal 
may  neither  be  sufficiently  pure  nor  enlightened  to 
decide  upon  the  issue ;  but  he  can  appeal  to  pos- 
terity, and  reckon  with  confidence  on  "  its  sure  de- 
cree." 

The  ardour  of  Galileo's  mind,  the  keenness  of 
his  temper,  his  clear  perception  of  truth,  and  his 
inextinguishable  love  of  it,  combined  to  exasperate 
and  prolong  the  hostility  of  his  enemies.  When 
argument  failed  to  enlighten  their  judgment,  and 
reason  to  dispel  their  prejudices,  he  wielded  against 
them  his  powerful  weapons  of  ridicule  and  sar- 
casm ;  and  in  this  unrelenting  warfare  he  seems  to 
have  forgotten  that  Providence  had  withheld  from 
his  enemies  those  very  gifts  which  he  had  so  liber- 
ally received.  He  who  is  allowed  to  take  the  start 
of  his  species,  and  to  penetrate  the  veil  which  con- 
ceals from  common  minds  the  mysteries  of  nature, 
must  not  expect  that  the  world  will  be  patiently 
dragged  at  the  chariot  wheels  of  his  philosophy. 
Mind  has  its  inertia  as  well  as  matter,  and  its 
F 


62  GALILEO. 

progress  to  truth  can  only  be  ensured  by  the  grad- 
ual and  patient  removal  of  the  obstructions  which 
surround  it. 

The  boldness — may  we  not  say  the  recklessness 
— with  which  Galileo  insisted  upon  making  prose- 
lytes of  his  enemies,  served  but  to  alienate  them 
from  the  trutl).  Errors  thus  assailed  speedily  in- 
trench themselves  in  general  feelings,  and  become 
embalmed  in  the  virulence  of  the  passions.  The 
various  classes  of  his  opponents  marshalled  them- 
selves for  their  mutual  defence.  The  Aristotelian 
professors,  the  temporizing  Jesuits,  the  political 
churchmen,  and  that  timid  but  respectable  body 
who  at  all  times  dread  innovation,  whether  it  be  in 
religion  or  science,  entered  into  an  alliance  against 
the  philosophical  tyrant  who  threatened  them  with 
the  penalties  of  knowledge. 

The  party  of  Galileo,  though  weak  in  numbers, 
was  not  without  power  and  influence!  He  had 
trained  around  him  a  devoted  band,  who  idolized 
his  genius  and  cherished  his  doctrines.  His  pupils 
had  been  appointed  to  several  of  the  principal  pro- 
fessorships in  Italy.  The  enemies  of  religion  were 
on  this  occasion  united  with  the  Christian  philoso- 
pher ;  and  there  were,  even  in  these  days,  many 
princes  and  nobles  who  had  felt  the  inconvenience 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  who  secretly  abet- 
ted  Galileo  in  his  crusade  against  established  errors. 


GALILEO.  63 

Although  these  two  parties  had  been  long  dread- 
ing  each  other's  power  and  reconnoitring  each 
other's  position,  yet  we  cannot  exactly  determine 
which  of  them  hoisted  the  first  signal  for  war. 
The  Church  party,  particularly  its  highest  dignita- 
ries, were  certainly  disposed  to  rest  on  the  defen- 
sive. Flanked  on  one  side  by  the  logic  of  the 
schools,  and  on  the  other  by  the  popular  interpre- 
tation of  Scripture,  and  backed  by  the  strong  arm 
of  the  civil  power,  they  were  not  disposed  to  inter- 
fere with  the  prosecution  of  science,  however  much 
they  may  have  dreaded  its  influence.  The  philos- 
ophers, on  the  contrary,  united  the  zeal  of  innova- 
tors with  that  firmness  of  purpose  which  truth 
alone  can  inspire.  Victorious  in  every  contest, 
they  were  flushed  with  success,  and  they  panted  for 
a  struggle  in  which  they  knew  they  must  triumph. 

In  this  state  of  warlike  preparation,  Galileo  ad- 
dressed a  letter  in  1613  to  his  friend  and  pupil, 
the  Abbe  Castelli,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prove 
that  the  Scriptures  were  not  intended  to  teach  us 
science  and  philosophy.  Hence  he  inferred  that 
the  language  employed  in  the  sacred  volume  in 
reference  to  such  subjects  should  be  interpreted 
only  in  its  common  acceptation,  and  that  it  was 
in  reality  as  difficult  to  reconcile  the  Ptolemaic  as 
the  Copernican  system  to  the  expressions  which 
occur  in  the  Bible. 


64  GALILEO. 

A  demonstration  was  about  this  time  made  by 
the  opposite  party,  in  the  person  of  Caccini,  a  Do- 
minican friar,  who  made  a  personal  attack  upon 
Galileo  from  the  pulpit.  This  violent  ecclesiastic 
ridiculed  the  astronomer  and  his  followers,  by  ad- 
dressing them  sarcastically  in  the  sacred  language 
of  Scripture :  "  Ye  men  of  Galilee,  why  stand  ye 
here  looking  up  into  heaven  ?"  But  this  species  of 
warfare  was  disapproved  of  even  by  the  Church ; 
and  Luigi  Maraffi,  the  general  of  the  Dominicans, 
not  only  apologized  to  Galileo,  who  had  transmitted 
to  him  a  formal  complaint  against  Caccini,  but  ex- 
pressed the  acuteness  of  his  own  feelings  on  being 
implicated  in  the  "  brutal  conduct  of  thirty  or  forty 
thousand  monks." 

From  the  character  of  Caccini,  and  the  part 
which  he  afterward  played  in  the  persecution  of 
Galileo,  we  can  scarcely  avoid  the  opinion  that  his 
attack  from  the  pulpit  was  intended  as  a  snare  for 
the  unwary  philosopher.  It  roused  Galileo  from 
his  wonted  caution ;  and  stimulated,  no  doubt,  by 
the  answer  which  he  received  from  Maraffi,  he  pub- 
lished a  long  letter  of  seventy  pages,  defending 
and  illustrating  his  former  views  respecting  the  in- 
fluence of  scriptural  language  on  the  two  contend- 
ing systems.  As  if  to  give  the  impress  of  royal 
rity  to  this  new  appeal,  he  addressed  it  to 
Christina,  grand-duchess  of  Tuscany,  the  mother 


jaatho 

^ nK-;a 


GALILEO.  65 

of  Cosmo ;  and  in  this  form  it  seems  to  have  exci- 
ted a  new  interest,  as  if  it  had  expressed  the  opin- 
ion of  the  grand-ducal  family.  These  external  cir- 
cumstances gave  additional  weight  to  the  powerful 
and  unanswerable  reasoning  which  this  letter  con- 
tains ;  and  it  was  scarcely  possible  that  any  man, 
possessed  of  a  sound  mind,  and  willing  to  learn  the 
truth,  should  refuse  his  assent  to  the  judicious  views 
of  our  author.  He  expresses  his  belief  that  the 
Scriptures  were  designed  to  instruct  mankind  re- 
specting  their  salvation,  and  that  the  faculties  of 
our  minds  were  given  us  for  the  purpose  of  inves- 
tigating the  phenomena  of  nature.  He  considers 
Scripture  and  nature  as  proceeding  from  the  same 
Divine  author,  and  therefore  incapable  of  speaking 
a  different  language  ;  and  he  points  out  the  absurd- 
ity of  supposing  that  professors  of  astronomy  will 
shut  their  eyes  to  the  phenomena  which  they  dis- 
cover in  the  heavens,  or  will  refuse  to  believe  those 
deductions  of  reason  which  appeal  to  their  judg- 
ment with  all  the  power  of  demonstration.  He 
supports  these  views  by  quotations  from  the  an- 
cient  fathers ;  and  he  refers  to  the  dedication  of 
Copernicus's  own  work  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  Paul 
III.,  as  a  proof  that  the  pope  himself  did  not  re- 
gard the  new  system  of  the  world  as  hostile  to  the 
sacred  writings.  Copernicus,  on  the  contrary,  tells 
his  holiness  that  the  reason  of  inscribing  to  him 
F2 


66  GALILEO. 

his  new  system  was,  that  the  authority  of  the  pon- 
tiff  might  put  to  silence  the  calumnies  of  some  in- 
dividuals who  attacked  it  by  arguments  drawn  from 
passages  of  Scripture  twisted  for  their  own  purpose, 
jit  was  in  vain  to  meet  such  reasoning  by  any 
other  weapons  than  those  of  the  civil  power.  The 
enemies  of  Galileo  saw  that  they  must  either  crush 
the  dangerous  innovation,  or  allow  it  the  fullest 
scope  ;  and  they  determined  upon  an  appeal  to  the 
Inquisition.  Lorini,  a  monk  of  the  Dominican  or- 
der,  had  already  denounced  to  this  body  Galileo's 
letter  to  Castelli ;  and  Caccini,  bribed  by  the  mas- 
tership of  the  convent  of  St.  Mary  of  Minerva,  was 
invited  to  settle  at  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
bodying  the  evidence  against  Galileo. 

Though  these  plans  had  been  carried  on  in  se- 
cret, yet  Galileo's  suspicions  were  excited ;  and 
he  obtained  leave  from  Cosmo  to  go  to  Rome 
about  the  end  of  1615.*  Here  he  was  lodged  in 
the  palace  of  the  grand-duke's  ambassador,  and 
kept  up  a  constant  correspondence  with  the  family 
of  his  patron  at  Florence ;  but  in  the  midst  of  this 
external  splendour  he  was  summoned  before  the 
Inquisition,  to  answer  for^the  heretical  doctrines 
which  he  had  published.  He  was  charged  with 
maintaining  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  the  sta- 

*  It  is  said  that  Galileo  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome  on 
this  occasion,  and  the  opinion  is  not  without  foundation. 


GALILEO.  67 

bility  of  the  sun ;  with  teaching  this  doctrine  to  his 
pupils ;  with  corresponding  on  the  subject  with 
several  German  mathematicians ;  and  with  having 
published  it,  and  attempted  to  reconcile  it  to  Scrip- 
ture in  his  letters  to  Mark  Velser  in  1612.  The 
Inquisition  assembled  to  consider  these  charges  on 
the  25th. of  February,  1615  ;  and  it  was  decreed 
that  Galileo  should  be  enjoined  by  Cardinal  Bellar- 
mine  to  renounce  the  obnoxious  doctrines,  and  to 
pledge  himself  that  he  would  neither  teach,  defend, 
nor  publish  them  in  future.  In  the  event  of  his 
refusing  to  acquiesce  in  this  sentence,  it  was  de- 
creed that  he  should  be  thrown  into  prison.  Gal- 
ileo did  not  hesitate  to  yield  to  this  injunction^"  'On 
the  day  following,  the  26th  of  February,  he  ap- 
peared before  Cardinal  Bellarmine  to  renounce  his 
heretical  opinions  ;  and  having  declared  that  he 
abandoned  the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion,  and 
would  neither  defend  nor  teach  it,  in  his  conversa- 
tion or  in  his  writings,  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
bar  of  the  Inquisition. 

Having  thus  disposed  of  Galileo,  the  Inquisition 
conceived  the  design  of  condemning  the  whole 
system  of  Copernicus  as  heretical.  Galileo,  with 
more  hardihood  than  prudence,  remained  at  Rome 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  his  assistance  in  frustra- 
ting this  plan  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  he 
injured  by  his  presence  the  very  cause  which  he 


68  GALILEO. 

meant  to  support.  The  inquisitors  had  determined 
to  put  down  the  new  opinions  ;  and  they  now  in- 
serted among  the  prohibited  books  Galileo's  letters 
to  Castelli  and  the  grand-duchess,  Kepler's  epitome 
of  the  Copernican  theory,  and  Copernicus's  own 
work  on  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Notwithstanding  these  proceedings,  Galileo  had 
an  audience  of  the  pope,  Paul  V.,  in  March,  1616. 
He  was  received  very  graciously,  and  spent  nearly 
an  hour  with  his  holiness.  When  they  were  about 
to  part,  the  pope  assured  Galileo  that  the  congre- 
gation were  not  disposed  to  receive  upon  light 
grounds  any  calumnies  which  might  be  propagated 
by  his  enemies,  and  that,  as  long  as  he  occupied 
the  papal  chair,  he  might  consider  himself  as  safe. 

These  assurances  were  no  doubt  founded  on  the 
belief  that  Galileo  would  adhere  to  his  pledges; 
but  so  bold  and  inconsiderate  was  he  in  the  expres- 
sion of  his  opinions,  that  even  in  Rome  he  was 
continually  engaged  in  controversial  discussions. 
The  following  very  interesting  account  of  these 
disputes  is  given  by  Querenghi,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Cardinal  D'Este  : 

"  Your  eminence  would  be  delighted  with  Gali- 
leo  if  you  heard  him  holding  forth,  as  he  often  does, 
in  the  midst  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  all  violently  at- 
tacking him,  sometimes  in  one  house,  sometimes  in 
another.  But  he  is  armed  after  such  fashion  that 


GALILEO.  69 

he  laughs  all  of  them  to  scorn ;  and  even  if  the 
novelty  of  his  opinions  prevents  entire  persuasion, 
he  at  least  convicts  of  emptiness  most  of  the  argu- 
ments with  which  his  adversaries  endeavour  to 
overwhelm  him.  He  was  particularly  admirable 
on  Monday  last  in  the  house  of  Signer  Frederico 
Ghisilieri ;  and  what  especially  pleased  me  was, 
that  before  replying  to  the  contrary  arguments,  he 
amplified  and  enforced  them  with  new  grounds  of 
great  plausibility,  so  as  to  leave  his  adversaries  in 
a  more  ridiculous  plight,  when  he  afterward  over- 

^turned  them  all."  . ^ 

The  discovery  of  Jupiter's  satellites  suggested  to 
Galileo  a  new  method  of  finding  the  longitude  at 
sea.  Philip  III.  had  encouraged  astronomers  to 
direct  their  attention  to  this  problem  by  offering  a 
reward  for  its  solution ;  and  in  those  days,  when 
new  discoveries  in  science  were  sometimes  rejected 
as  injurious  to  mankind,  it  was  no  common  event 
to  see  a  powerful  sovereign  courting  the  assistance 
of  astronomers  in  promoting  the  commercial  inter- 
ests  of  his  empire.  Galileo  seems  to  have  regard- 
ed the  solution  of  this  problem  as  an  object  worthy 
of  his  ambition  ;  and  he  no  doubt  anticipated  the 
triumph  which  he  would  obtain  over  his  enemies, 
if  the  Medicean  stars,  which  they  had  treated  with 
such  contempt,  could  be  made  subservient  to  the 
great  interests  of  mankind.  During  his  residence 


70  GALILEO. 

at  Rome  in  1615  and  1616,  Galileo  had  communi- 
cated his  views  on  this  subject  to  the  Comte  di  Le- 
mos,  the  viceroy  of  Naples,  who  had  presided  over 
the  council  of  the  Spanish  Indies.  This  nobleman 
advised  him  to  apply  to  the  Spanish  minister,  the 
Duke  of  Lerma  ;  and,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Grand-duke  Cosmo,  his  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  Madrid  was  engaged  to  manage  the  affair.  The 
anxiety  of  Galileo  on  this  subject  was  singularly 
great.  He  assured  the  Tuscan  ambassador  that, 
in  order  to  accomplish  this  object,  "  he  was  ready 
to  leave  all  his  comforts,  his  country,  his  friends, 
and  his  family,  to  cross  over  into  Spain,  and  to  stay 
as  long  as  he  might  be  wanted  at  Seville,  or  at  Lis- 
bon, or  wherever  it  might  be  convenient  to  com- 
municate a  knowledge  of  his  method."  The  leth- 
argy of  the  Spanish  court  seems  to  have  increased 
with  the  enthusiasm  of  Galileo  ;  and,  though  the 
negotiations  were  occasionally  revived  for  ten  or 
twelve  years,  yet  no  steps  were  taken  to  bring  them 
to  a  close.  This  strange  procrastination  has  been 
generally  ascribed  to  jealousy  or  indifference  on 
the  part  of  Spain  ;  but  Nelli,  one  of  Galileo's  bi- 
ographers, declares,  on  the  authority  of  Florentine 
records,  that  Cosmo  had  privately  requested  from 
the  government  the  privilege  of  sending  annually  to 
the  Spanish  Indies  two  Leghorn  merchantmen  free 
of  duty,  as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Galileo  ! 


GALILEO.  71 

The  failure  of  this  negotiation  must  have  been  a 
source  of  extreme  mortification  to  the  high  spirit 
and  sanguine  temperament  of  Galileo.  He  had 
calculated,  however,  too  securely  on  his  means  of 
putting  the  new  method  to  a  successful  trial.  The 
great  imperfection  of  the  timekeepers  of  that  day, 
and  the  want  of  proper  telescopes,  would  have  baf- 
fled him  in  all  his  efforts,  and  he -would  have  been 
subject  to  a  more  serious  mortification  from  the 
failure  and  rejection  of  his  plan  than  that  which  he 
actually  experienced  from  the  avarice  of  his  patron 
or  the  indifference  of  Spain.  Even  in  the  present 
day  no  telescope  has  been  invented  which  is  capa- 
ble of  observing  at  sea  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  sat- 
ellites ;  and  though  this  method  of  finding  the  lon- 
gitude has  great  advantages  on  shore,  yet  it  has 
been  completely  abandoned  at  sea,  and  superseded 
by  easier  and  more  correct  methods. 

In  the  year  1618,  when  no  fewer  than  three  com- 
ets visited  our  system,  and  attracted  the  attention 
of  all  the  astronomers  of  Europe,  Galileo  was  un- 
fortunately confined  to  his  bed  by  a  severe  illness  ; 
but,  though  he  was  unable  to  make  a  single  obser- 
vation upon  these  remarkable  bodies,  he  contrived 
to  involve  himself  in  the  controversies  which  they 
occasioned.  Marco  Guiducci,  an  astronomer  of 
Florence,  and  a  friend  of  Galileo,  had  delivered  a 
discourse  on  comets  before  the  Florentine  Acade. 


72  GALILEO. 

my.  The  heads  of  this  discourse,  which  was  pub- 
lished  in  1619,*  were  supposed  to  have  been  com- 
municated  to  him  by  Galileo,  and  this  seems  to 
have  been  universally  admitted  during  the  contro- 
versy to  which  it  gave  rise.  The  opinion  main- 
tained  in  this  treatise,  that  comets  are  nothing  but 
meteors  which  occasionally  appear  in  our  atmo- 
sphere, like  halos  and  rainbows,  savours  so  little  of 
the  sagacity  of  Galileo  that  we  should  be  disposed 
to  question  its  paternity.  His  inability  to  partake 
in  the  general  interest  which  these  three  comets 
excited,  and  to  employ  his  powerful  telescope  in 
observing  their  phenomena  and  their  movements, 
might  have  had  some  slight  share  in  the  formation 
of  an  opinion  which  deprived  them  of  their  impor- 
tance as  celestial  bodies.  But,  however  this  may 
have  been,  the  treatise  of  Guiducci  afforded  a  fa- 
vourable point  of  attack  to  Galileo's  enemies,  and 
the  dangerous  task  was  intrusted  to  Horatio  Gras- 
si,  a  learned  Jesuit,  who,  in  a  work  entitled  The 
Astronomical  and  Philosophical  Balance,  criticised 
the  discourse  on  comets,  under  the  feigned  name  of 
Lotario  Sarsi. 

Galileo  replied  to  this  attack  in  a  volume  entitled 
II  Saggiatore,  or  The  Assayer,  which,  owing  to  the 
state  of  his  health,  was  not  published  till  the  au- 

*  Discorso  delle  Comete.  Printed  in  the  Opere  di  Galileo, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  117-191. 


GALILEO.  73 

tumn  of  1623.*  This  work  was  written  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  to  Virginio  Cesarini,  a  member  of 
the  Lyncsean  Academy,  and  master  of  the  chamber 
to  Urban  VIII.,  who  had  just  ascended  thfe  papal 
throne.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  pontiff  himself, 
and  has  been  long  celebrated  among  literary  men 
for  the  beauty  of  its  language,  though  it  is  doubt- 
less one  of  the  least  important  of  Galileo's  writings. 

*  Printed  in  the  Opere  di  Galileo,  vol.  vi.,  p.  191-571. 

G 


74  GALILEO. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Urban  VITI.,  Galileo's  Friend,  raised  to  the  Pontificate.— 
Galileo  goes  to  Rome  to  offer  his  Congratulations. — The 
Pope  loads  Galileo  with  Presents,  and  promises  a  Pension 
to  his  Son. — Galileo  in  pecuniary  Difficulties,  owing  to  the 
Death  of  his  Patron,  Cosmo. — Galileo  again  rashly  attacks 
the  Church,  notwithstanding  the  Pope's  Kindness. — He 
composes  his  System  of  the  World,  to  demonstrate  the  Co- 
pernican  System. — Artfully  obtains  a  License  to  print  it. 
— Nature  of  the  Work. — Its  Influence  on  the  Public  Mind. 
— The  Pope  resolves  on  suppressing  it. — Galileo  summon- 
ed before  the  Inquisition. — His  Trial. — His  Defence. — His 
formal  Abjuration  of  his  Opinions. — Observations  on  his 
Conduct. — The  Pope  shows  great  Indulgence  to  Galileo, 
who  is  allowed  to  return  to  his  own  House  at  Arcetri  as 
the  Place  of  his  Confinement. 

THE  succession  of  the  Cardinal  MafFeo  Barberini 
to  the  papal  throne,  under  the  name  of  Urban  VIII., 
was  hailed  by  Galileo  and  his  friends  as  an  event 
favourable  to  the  promotion  of  science.  Urban 
had  not  only  been  the  personal  friend  of  Galileo 
and  of  Prince  Cesi,  the  founder  of  the  Lyncsean 
Academy,  but  had  been  intimately  connected  with 
that  able  and  liberal  association,  and  it  was  there- 
fore deemed  prudent  to  secure  his  favour  and  at- 
tachment. If  Paul  III.  had,  nearly  a  century  be- 


GALILEO.  75 

fore,  patronised  Copernicus  and  accepted  of  the 
dedication  of  his  great  work,  it  was  not  unreason- 
able to  expect  that,  in  more  enlightened  times,  an- 
other pontiff  might  exhibit  the  same  liberality  to 

science. 

The  plan  of  securing  to  Galileo  the  patronage  of 
Urban  VIII.  seems  to  have  been  devised  by  Prince 
Cesi.  Although  Galileo  had  not  been  able  for 
some  years  to  travel  excepting  in  a  litter,  yet  he 
was  urged  by  the  prince  to  perform  a  journey  to 
Rome,  for  the  express  purpose  of  congratulating 
his  friend  upon  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair. 
This  request  was  •  made  in  October,  1623  ;  and 
though  Galileo's  health  was  not  such,  as  to  author- 
ize him  to  undergo  so  much  fatigue,  yet  he  felt  the 
importance  of  the  advice,  and,  after  visiting  Cesi  at 
Acqua  Sparta,  he  arrived  at  Rome  in  the  spring  of 
1624.  The  reception  which  he  here  experienced 
far  exceeded  his  most  sanguine  expectations.  Du- 
ring the  two  months  which  he  spent  in  the  capital 
he  was  permitted  to  have  no  fewer  than  six  long 
and  gratifying  audiences  of  the  pope.  The  kind- 
ness of  his  holiness  was  of  the  most  marked  de- 
scription. He  not  only  loaded  Galileo  with  pres- 
ents,* and  promised  him  a  pension  for  his  son  Vin- 
cenzo,  but  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Ferdinand,  who  had 

*  A  fine  painting  in  gold,  and  a  silver  medal,  and  a  "  good 
quantity  of  Agnus  Dei." 


76  GALILEO. 

just  succeeded  Cosmo  as  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany, 
recommending  Galileo  to  his  particular  patronage. 
"  For  we  find  in  him,"  says  he,  "  not  only  literary 
distinction,  but  the  love  of  piety  ;  and  he  is  strong 
in  those  qualities  by  which  pontifical  good. will  is 
easily  obtained.  And  now,  when  he  has  been 
brought  to  this  city  to  congratulate  us  on  our  ele- 
vation, we  have  very  lovingly  embraced  him  ;  nor 
can  we  suffer  him  to  return  to  the  country,  whither 
your  liberality  recalls  him,  without  an  ample  pro- 
vision of  pontifical  love.  And  that  you  may  know 
how  dear  he  is  to  us,  we  have  willed  to  give  him 
this  honourable  testimonial  of  virtue  and  piety. 
And  we  farther  signify,  that  every  benefit  which 
you  shall  confer  upon  him,  imitating  or  even  sur- 
passing your  father's  liberality,  will  conduce  to  our 
gratification." 

Not  content  with  thus  securing  the  friendship 
of  the  pope,  Galileo  endeavoured  to  bespeak  the 
good-will  of  the  cardinals  towards  the  Copernican 
system.  He  had,  accordingly,  many  interviews 
with  several  of  these  dignitaries  ;  and  he  was  as- 
sured  by  Cardinal  Hohenzoller  that,  in  a  represent- 
ation which  he  had  made  to  the  pope  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Copernicus,  he  stated  to  his  holiness  "  that, 
as  all  the  heretics  considered  that  system  as  un- 
doubted, it  would  be  necessary  to  be  very  circum- 
spect in  coming  to  any  resolution  on  the  subject." 


GALILEO.  77 

To  this  remark  his  holiness  replied,  "  That  the 
Church  had  not  condemned  this  system  ;  and  that 
it  should  not  be  condemned  as  heretical,  but  only 
as  rash;"  and  he  added,  "that  there  was  no  fear 
of  any  person  undertaking  to  prove  that  it  must  ne- 
cessarily be  true." 

The  recent  appointment  of  the  Abbe  Castelli, 
the  friend  and  pupil  of  Galileo,  to  be  mathematician 
to  the  pope,  was  an  event  of  a  most  gratifying  na- 
ture ;  and  when  we  recollect  that  it  was  to  Castelli 
that  he  addressed  the  famous  letter  which  was  pro. 
nounced  heretical  by  the  Inquisition,  we  must  re- 
gard it  also  as  an  event  indicative  of  a  new  and 
favourable  feeling  towards  the  friend  of  science. 
The  opinions  of  Urban,  indeed,  had  suffered  no 
change.  He  was  one  of  the  few  cardinals  who  had 
opposed  the  inquisitorial  decree  of  1616,  and  his 
subsequent  demeanour  was  in  every  respect  con- 
formable to  the  liberality  of  his  early  views.  The 
sincerity  of  his  conduct  was  still  farther  evinced  by 
the  grant  of  a  pension  of  one  hundred  crowns  to 
Galileo  a  few  years  after  his  visit  to  Rome,  though 
there  is  reason  to  think  that  this  allowance  was  not 
regularly  paid. 

The  death  of  Cosmo,  whose  liberality  had  given 

him  both  affluence  and  leisure,  threatened  Galileo 

with  pecuniary  difficulties.     He  had  been  involved 

in  a  "  great  load  of  debt,"  owing  to  the  circum- 

G2 


78  GALILEO. 

stances  of  his  brother's  family ;  and.  in  order  to  re- 
lieve himself,  he  had  requested  Castelli  to  dispose 
of  the  pension  of  his  son  Vincenzo.  In  addition  to 
this  calamity  he  was  now  alarmed  at  the  prospect 
of  losing  his  salary  as  an  extraordinary  professor 
at  Pisa.  The  great  youth  of  Ferdinand,  who  was 
scarcely  of  age,  induced  Galileo's  enemies,  in  1629, 
to  raise  doubts  respecting  the  payment  of  a  salary 
to  a  professor  who  neither  resided  nor  lectured  in 
the  University ;  but  the  question  was  decided  in  his 
favour,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  decision  was 
facilitated  by  the  friendly  recommendation  of  the 
pope,  to  which  we  have  already  referred. 
'  Although  Galileo  had  made  a  narrow  escape  from 
the  grasp  of  the  Inquisition,  yet  he  was  never  suf- 
ficiently sensible  of  the  lenity  which  he  experienced. 
When  he  left  Rome  in  1616,  under  the  solemn 
pledge  of  never  again  teaching  the  obnoxious  doc- 
trine, it  was  with  a  hostility  against  the  Church, 
suppressed  but  deeply  cherished ;  and  his  resolu- 
tion to  propagate  the  heresy  seems  to  have  been 
coeval  with  the  vow  by  which  he  renounced  it.  In 
the  year  1618,  when  he  communicated  his  theory 
of  the  tides  to  the  Archduke  Leopold,  he  alludes  in 
the  most  sarcastic  manner  to  the  conduct  of  the 
Church.  The  same  hostile  tone,  more  or  less,  per- 
vaded all  his  writings ;  and  while  he  laboured  to 
sharpen  the  edge  of  his  satire,  he  endeavoured  to 


GALILEO.  79 

guard  himself  against  its  effects  by  an  affectation 
of  the  humblest  deference  to  the  decisions  of  theol- 
ogy. Had  Galileo  stood  alone,  his  devotion  to  sci- 
ence might  have  withdrawn  him  from  so  hopeless  a 
contest ;  but  he  was  spurred  on  by  the  violence  of 
a  party.  The  Lyncsean  Academy  never  scrupled 
to  summon  him  from  his  researches.  They  placed 
him  in  the  forlorn  hope  of  their  combat,  and  he  at 
last  fell  a  victim  to  the  rashness  of  his  friends. 

But,  whatever  allowance  we  may  make  for  the 
ardour  of  Galileo's  temper  and  the  peculiarity  of 
his  position,  and  however  we  may  justify  and  even 
approve  of  his  past  conduct,  his  visit  to  Urban  VIII., 
in  1624,  placed  him  in  a  new  relation  to  the  Church, 
which  demanded  on  his  part  a  new  and  correspond- 
ing demeanour.  The  noble  and  generous  reception 
which  he  met  with  from  Urban,  and  the  liberal  dec- 
laration of  Cardinal  Hohenzoller  on  the  subject  of 
the  Copernican  system,  should  have  been  regarded 
as  expressions  of  regret  for  the  past  and  offers  of 
conciliation  for  the  future.  '  Thus  honoured  by  the 
head  of  the  Church,  and  befriended  by  its  dignita- 
ries, Galileo  must  have  felt  himself  secure  against 
the  indignities  of  its  lesser  functionaries,  and  in  the 
possession  of  the  fullest  license  to^g»secute  his  re- 
searches and  publish  his  discoifl^P  provided  he 
avoided  that  dogma  of  thej£h»^^hich,  even  in 
the  present  day,  it  has  noJJKturccl  to  renounce. 


80  GALILEO. 

But  Galileo  was  bound  to  the  Romish  hierarchy  by 
even  stronger  ties.  His  son  and  himself  were  pen- 
sioners of  the  Church,  and,  having  accepted  of  its 
alms,  they  owed  to  it,  at  least,  a  decent  and  re- 
spectful allegiance.  The  pension  thus  given  by 
Urban  was  not  a  remuneration  which  sovereigns 
sometimes  award  to  the  services  of  their  subjects. 
Galileo  was  a  foreigner  at  Rome.  The  sovereign 
of  the  papal  state  owed  him  no  obligation ;  and 
hence  we  must  regard  the  pension  of  Galileo  as  a 
donation  from  the  Roman  pontiff  to  science  itself, 
and  as  a  declaration  to  the  Christian  world  that  re- 
ligion was  not  jealous  of  philosophy,  and  that  the 
Church  of  Rome  was  willing  to  respect  and  foster 
evsn  the  genius  of  its  enemies. 

Galileo  viewed  all  these  circumstances  in  a  dif- 
ferent light.  He  resolved  to  compose  a  work  in 
which  the  Copernican  system  should  be  demon- 
strated ;  but  he  had  not  the  courage  to  do  this  in 
a  direct  and  open  manner.  He  adopted  the  plan 
of  discussing  the  subject  in  a  dialogue  between 
three  speakers,  in  the  hope  of  eluding  by  this  arti- 
fice the  censure  of  the  Church.  This  work  was 
completed  in  1630,  but,  owing  to  some  difficulties 
in  obtaining  a  license  to  print  it,  it  was  not  pub- 
lished  till  I6 

In  obtaining  |his  license  Galileo  exhibited  con- 
siderable add ressSMfcis  memory  has  not  escaped 


GALILEO.  81 

from  the  imputation  of  having  acted  unfairly,  and 
of  having  involved  his  personal  friends  in  the  con- 
sequences of  his  imprudence. 

The  situation  of  master  of  the  palace  was,  for- 
tunately for  Galileo's  designs,  filled  by  Nicolo  Ric- 
cardi,  a  friend  and  pupil  of  his  own.  This  officer 
was  a  sort  of  censor  of  new  publications,  and  when 
he  was  applied  to  on  the  subject  of  printing  his 
work,  Galileo  soon  found  that  attempts  had  pre- 
viously been  made  to  thwart  his  views.  He  in- 
stantly  set  off  for  Rome,  and  had  an  interview  with 
his  friend,  who  was  in  every  respect  anxious  to 
oblige  him.  Riccardi  examined  the  manuscript, 
pointed  out  some  incautious  expressions  which  he 
considered  it  necessary  to  erase,  and  returned  it 
with  his  written  approbation,  on  the  understanding 
that  the  alterations  he  suggested  would  be  made. 
Dreading  to  remain  in  Rome  during  the  unhealthy 
season,  which  was  fast  approaching,  Galileo  re- 
turned  to  Florence,  with  the  intention  of  completing 
the  index  .and  dedication,  and  of  sending  the  MS. 
to  Rome,  to  be  printed  under  the  care  of  Prince 
Cesi.  The  death  of  that  distinguished  individual, 
in  August,  1630,  frustrated  Galileo's  plan,  and  he 
applied  for  leave  to  have  the  book  printed  in  Flor- 
ence. Riccardi  was  at  first  desirous  of  examining 
the  MS.  again  ;  but,  after  inspecting  only  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  it,  h^gave  Galileo  leave  to 


[  of  it,h^ 


82  GALILEO. 

print  it  wherever  he  chose,  providing  it  bore  the 
license  of  the  Inquisitor-general  of  Florence,  and 
one  or  two  other  persons  whom  he  named. 

Having  overcome  all  these  difficulties,  Galileo's 
work  was  published  in  1632,  under  the  title  of 
«  The  System  of  the  World  of  Galileo  Galilei,  &c., 
in  which,  in  four  dialogues  concerning  the  two  prin- 
cipal systems  of  the  world — the  Ptolemaic  and  the 
Copernican  —  he  discusses,  indeterminately  and 
firmly,  the  arguments  proposed  on  both  sides."  It 
is  dedicated  to  Ferdinand,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  is  prefaced  by  an  "  address  to  the  prudent 
reader,"  which  is  itself  characterized  by  the  utmost 
imprudence.  He  refers  to  the  decree  of  the  Inqui- 
sition in  the  most  insulting  and  ironical  language. 
He  attributes  it  to  passion  and  to  ignorance,  not  by 
direct  assertion,  but  by  insinuations  ascribed  to 
others  ;  and/  he  announces  his  intention  to  defend 
the  Copernican  system  as  a  pure  mathematical 
hypothesis,  and  not  as  an  opinion  having  an  ad- 
vantage over  that  of  the  stability  of  the  earth  abso- 
lutely. The  dialogue  is  conducted  by  three  per- 
sons, Salviati,  Sagredo,  and  Simplicio.  Salviati, 
who  is  the  true  philosopher  in  the  dialogue,  was 
the  real  name  of  a  nobleman  whom  we  have  al- 
ready had  occasion  to  mention.  Sagredo,  the  name 
of  another  noble  friend  of  Galileo's,  performs  a  sec. 
ondary  part  under  Salviati.  He  proposes  doubts, 


SaMati.     He 


GALILEO.  83 

suggests  difficulties,  and  enlivens  the  gravity  of  the 
dialogue  with  his  wit  and  pleasantry.  Simplicio 
is  a  resolute  follower  of  Ptolemy  and  Aristotle,  and, 
with  a  proper  degree  of  candour  and  modesty,  he 
brings  forward  all  the  common  arguments  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Ptolemaic  system.  Between  the  wit  of 
Sagredo  and  the  powerful  philosophy  of  Salviati, 
the  peripatetic  sage  is  baffled  in  every  discussion ; 
and' there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Galileo  aimed  a 
more  fatal  blow  at  the  Ptolemaic  system  by  this 
mode  of  discussing  it,  than  if  he  had  endeavoured 
to  overturn  it  by  direct  arguments. 

The  influence  of  this  work  on  the  public  mind 
was  such  as  might  have  been  anticipated.  The  ob- 
noxious doctrines  which  it  upheld  were  eagerly  re- 
ceived and  widely  disseminated  ;  and  the  Church  of 
Rome  became  sensible  of  the  shock  which  was  thus 
given  to  its  intellectual  supremacy.  Pope  Urban 
VIII.,  attached  though  he  had  been  to  Galileo,  nev- 
er once  hesitated  respecting  the  line  of  conduct 
which  he  felt  himself  bound  to  pursue.  His  mind 
was  nevertheless  agitated  with  conflicting  senti- 
ments. He  entertained  a  sincere  affection  for  sci- 
ence and  literature,  and  yet  he  was  placed  in  the  po- 
sition of  their  enemy.  He  had  been  the  personal 
friend  of  Galileo,  and  yet  his  duty  compelled  him 
to  become  his  accuser.  Embarrassing  as  these  feel- 
ings were,  other  considerations  contributed  to  sooth 


84  GALILEO. 

him.  He  had,  in  his  capacity  of  a  cardinal,  oppo- 
sed the  first  persecution  of  Galileo.  He  had,  since 
his  elevation  to  the  pontificate,  traced  an  open  path 
for  the  march  of  Galileo's  discoveries  ;  and  he  had 
finally  endeavoured  to  bind  the  recusant  philosopher 
by  the  chains  of  kindness  and  gratitude.  All  these 
means,  however,  had  proved  abortive,  and  he  was 
now  called  upon  to  support  the  doctrine  which  he 
had  subscribed,  and  administer  the  law  of  which  he 
was  the  guardian. 

It  has  been  supposed,  without  any  satisfactory 
evidence,  that  Urban  may  have  been  influenced  by 
less  creditable  motives.  Salviati  and  Sagredo  being 
well-known  personages,  it  was  inferred  that  Sim- 
plicio  must  also  have  a  representative.  The  ene- 
mies of  Galileo  are  said  to  have  convinced  his  holi- 
ness that  Simplicio  was  intended  as  a  portraiture  of 
himself ;  and  this  opinion  received  some  probabili- 
ty from  the  fact  that  the  peripatetic  disputant  had 
employed  many  of  the  arguments  which  Urban  had 
himself  used  in  his  discussions  with  Galileo.  The 
latest  biographer  of  Galileo*  regards  this  motive 
as  necessary  to  account  for  "  the  otherwise  inexpli* 
cable  change  which  took  place  in  the  conduct  of 
Urban  to  his  old  friend  ;"  but  we  cannot  admit  the 
truth  of  this  supposition.  The  Church  had  been 
placed  in  hostility  to  a  powerful  and  liberal  party, 
*  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  Life  of  Galileo,  chap.  viii. 


GALILEO.  85 

which  was  adverse  to  its  interests.  The  dogmas 
of  the  Catholic  faith  had  been  brought  into  direct 
collision  with  the  deductions  of  science.  The  lead- 
er of  the  philosophic  band  had  broken  the  most  sol. 
emn  armistice  with  the  Inquisition :  he  had  renoun- 
ced the  ties  of  gratitude  which  bound  him  to  the 
pontiff ;  and  Urban  was  thus  compelled  to  intrench 
himself  in  a  position  to  which  he  had  been  driven 
bj  his  opponents. 

The  design  of  summoning  Galileo  before  the 
Inquisition  seems  to  have  been  formed  almost  im- 
mediately after  the  publication  of  his  book  ;  for 
even  in  August,  1632,  the  preliminary  proceedings 
had  reached  the  ears  of  the  Grand-duke  Ferdinand. 
The  Tuscan  ambassador  at  Rome  was  speedily  ac- 
quainted with  the  dissatisfaction  which  his  sover- 
eign felt  at  these  proceedings ;  and  he  was  instruct- 
ed to  forward  to  Florence  a  written  statement  of 
the  charges  against  Galileo,  in  order  to  enable  him 
to  prepare  for  his  defence.  Although  this  request 
was  denied,  Ferdinand  again  interposed,  and  trans- 
mitted a  letter  to  hte  ambassador,  recommending 
the  admission  of  Campanella  and  Castelli  into  the 
congregation  of  ecclesiastics  'by  whom  Galileo  was 
to  be- judged.  Circumstances,  however,  rendered 
it  prudent  to  withhold  this  letter.  Castelli  was  sent 
away  from  Rome,  and  Scipio  Chiaramonte,  a  bigot- 
H 


86  GALILEO. 

ed  ecclesiastic,  was  summoned  from  Pisa  to  com- 
plete the  number  of  the  judges. 

It  appears  from  a  despatch  of  the  Tuscan  minis- 
ter that  Ferdinand  was  enraged  at  the  transaction  ; 
and  he  instructed  his  ambassador,  Niccolini,  to 
make  the  strongest  representations  to  the  pope. 
Niccolini  had  several  interviews  with  his  holiness, 
but  all  his  expostulations  were  fruitless.  He  found 
Urban  highly  incensed  against  Galileo  ;  and  his 
holiness  begged  Niccolini  to  advise  the  archduke 
not  to  interfere  any  farther,  as  he  would  not  "  get 
through  it  with  honour."  On  the  15th  of  Septem- 
ber the  pope  caused  it  to  be  intimated  to  Niccolini, 
as  a  mark  of  his  especial  esteem  for  the  grand-duke, 
that  he  was  obliged  to  refer  the  work  to  the  Inqui- 
sition ;  but  both  the  prince  and  his  ambassador 
were  declared  liable  to  the  usual  censures  if  they 
divulged  the  secret. 

From  the  measures  which  this  tribunal  had  for. 
merly  pursued,  it  was  not  difficult  to  foresee  the  re- 
sult of  their  present  deliberations.  They  summon- 
ed Galileo  to  appear  before  tfcpm  at  Rome,  to  an- 
swer in  person  the  charges  under  which  he  Jay. 
The  Tuscan  ambassador  expostulated  warmly  with 
the  court  of  Rome  on  the  inhumanity  of  this  pro- 
ceeding.  He  urged  his  advanced  age,  his  infirm 
health,  the  discomforts  of  the  journey,  and  the  mis- 


GALILEO.  87 

eries  of  the  quarantine,*  as  motives  for  reconsider- 
ing their  decision  :  buV'the  pope  was  inexorable ; 
and  though  it  was  agreed  to  relax  the  quarantine  as 
much  as  possible  in  his  favour,  yet  it  was  declared 
indispensable  that  he  should  appear  in  person  be- 
fore the  Inquisition. 

Worn  out  with  age  and  infirmities,  and  exhaust- 
ed with  the  fatigues  of  his  journey,  Galileo  arrived 
at  Rome  on  the  14th  of  February,  1633.  The 
Tuscan  ambassador  announced  his  arrival  in  an 
official  form  to  the  commissary  of  the  Holy  Office, 
and  Galileo  awaited  in  calm  dignity  the  approach 
of  his  trial.  Among  those  who  proffered  their  ad. 
vice  in  this  distressing  emergency  we  must  enu- 
merate the  Cardinal  Barberino,  the  pope's  nephew, 
who,  though  he  may  have  felt  the  necessity  of  an 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  Church,  was  yet  de- 
sirous that  it  should  be  effected  with  the  least  inju- 
ry to  Galileo  and  to  science.  He  accordingly  vis- 
ited Galileo,  and  advised  him  to  remain  as  much  at 
home  as  possible,  to  keep  aloof  from  general  society, 
and  to  see  only  his  most  intimate  friends.  The 
same  advice  was  given  from  different  quarters ; 
and  Galileo,  feeling  its  propriety,  remained  in  strict 
seclusion  in  the  palace  of  the  Tuscan  ambassador. 

*  The  communication  between  Florence  and  Rome  was  at 
this  time  interrupted  by  a  contagious  disease  which  had  broken 
out  in  Tuscany. 


88  GALILEO. 

During  the  whole  of  the  trial  which  had  now 
commenced,  Galileo  was  treated  with  the  most 
marked  indulgence.  Abhorring,  as  we  must  do, 
the  principles  and  practice  of  this  odious  tribunal, 
and  reprobating  its  interference  with  the  cautious 
deductions  of  science,  we  must  yet  admit  that,  on 
this  occasion,  its  deliberations  were  not  dictated  by 
passion,  nor  its  power  directed  by  vengeance. 
Though  placed  at  their  judgment-seat  as  a  heretic, 
Galileo  stood  there  with  the  recognised  attributes 
of  a  sage  ;  and  though  an  offender  against  the  laws 
of  which  they  were  the  guardian,  yet  the  highest 
respect  was  yielded  to  his  genius,  and  the  kindest 
commiseration  to  his  infirmities. 

In  the  beginning  of  April,  when  his  examination 
in  person  was  to  commence,  it  became  necessary 
that  he  should  be  removed  to  the  Holy  Office ;  but 
instead  of  committing  him,  as  was  the  practice,  to 
solitary  confinement,  he  was  provided  with  apart- 
ments  in  the  house  of  the  fiscal  of  the  Inquisition. 
His  table  was  provided  by  the  Tuscan  ambassador, 
and  his  servant  was  allowed  to  attend  him  at  his 
pleasure,  and  to  sleep  in  an  adjoining  apartment. 
Even  this  nominal  confinement,  however,  Galileo's 
high  spirit  was  unable  to  brook.  An  attack  of  the 
disease  to  which  he  was  constitutionally  subject 
contributed  to  fret  and  irritate  him,  and  he  became 
impatient  for  a  release  from  his  anxiety  as  well  as 


GALILEO.  89 

from  his  bondage.  Cardinal  Barberino  seems  to 
have  received  notice  of  the  state  of  Galileo's  feel- 
ings, and,  with  a  magnanimity  which  posterity  will 
ever  honour,  he  liberated  the  philosopher  on  his 
own  responsibility  ;  and  in  ten  days  after  his  first 
examination,  and  on  the  last  day  of  April,  he  was 
restored  to  the  hospitable  roof  of  the  Tuscan  am- 
bassador. 

Though  this  favour  was  granted  on  the  condition 
of  his  remaining  in  strict  seclusion,  Galileo  recov- 
ered his  health,  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  his  usual 
hilarity,  amid  the  kind  attentions  of  Niccolini  and 
his  family ;  and  when  the  want  of  exercise  had 
begun  to  produce  symptoms  of  indisposition,  the 
Tuscan  minister  obtained  for  him  leave  to  go  into 
the  public  gardens  in  a  half-closed  carriage. 

After  the  Inquisition  had  examined  Galileo  per- 
sonally, they  allowed  him  a  reasonable  time  for 
preparing  his  defence.  He  felt  the  difficulty  of 
adducing  anything  like  a  plausible  justification  of 
his  conduct ;  and  he  resorted  to  an  ingenious, 
though  a  shallow  artifice,  which  was  regarded  by 
the  court  as  an  aggravation  of  the  crime.  After 
his  first  appearance  before  the  Inquisition  in  1616, 
he  was  publicly  and  falsely  charged  by  his  enemies 
with  having  then  abjured  his  opinions,  and  he  was 
taunted  as  a  criminal  who  had  been  actually  pun- 
ished for  his  offences.  As  a  refutation  of  these 
H2 


90  GALILEO. 

calumnies,  Cardinal  Bellarmine  had  given  him  a 
certificate  in  his  own  handwriting,  declaring  that 
he  neither  abjured  his  opinions,  nor  suffered  pun- 
ishment for  them;  and  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
earth's  motion  and  the  sun's  stability  was  only  de- 
nounced to  him  as  contrary  to  Scripture,  and  as 
one  which  could  not  be  defended.  To  this  certifi- 
cate the  cardinal  did  not  add,  because  he  was  not 
called  upon  to  do  it,  that  Galileo  was  enjoined  not 
to  teach  in  any  manner  the  doctrine  thus  denounced ; 
and  Galileo  ingeniously  avails  himself  of  this  sup- 
posed omission  to  account  for  his  having,  in  the 
lapse  of  fourteen  or  sixteen  years,  forgotten  the  in- 
junction.  He  assigned  the  same  excuse  for  his 
having  omitted  to  mention  this  injunction  to  Ric- 
cardi,  and  to  the  inquisitor-general  at  Florence, 
when  he  obtained  the  license  to  print  his  Dialogues. 
The  court  held  the  production  of  this  certificate  to 
be  at  once  a  proof  and  an  aggravation  of  his  of. 
fence,  because  the  certificate  itself  declared  that 
the  obnoxious  doctrines  had  been  pronounced  con- 
trary to  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Having  duly  weighed  the  confessions  and  excu- 
ses of  their  prisoner,  and  considered  the  general 
merits  of  the  case,  the  Inquisition  came  to  an 
agreement  upon  the  sentence  which  they  were  to 
pronounce,  and  appointed  the  22d  of  June  as  the 
day  on  which  it.  was  to  be  delivered.  Two  days 


GALILEO.  91 

previous  to  this  Galileo  was  summoned  to  appear 
at  the  Holy  Office,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  21st 
he  obeyed  the  summons.  On  the  22d  of  June  he 
was  clothed  in  a  penitential  dress,  and  conducted 
to  the  convent  of  Minerva,  where  the  Inquisition 
was  assembled  to  give  judgment.  A  long  and 
elaborate  sentence  was  pronounced,  detailing  the 
former  proceedings  of  the  Inquisition,  and  specify- 
ing the  offences  which  he  had  committed  in  teach- 
ing heretical  doctrines,  in  violating  his  former 
pledges,  and  in  obtaining  by  improper  means  a  li- 
cense for  the  printing  of  his  Dialogues.  After  an 
invocation  of  the  name  of  our  Saviour  and  of  the 
Holy  Virgin,  Galileo  is  declared  to  have  brought 
himself  under  strong  suspicions  of  heresy,  and  to 
have  incurred  all  the  censures  and  penalties  which 
are  enjoined  against  delinquents  of  this  kind  ;  but 
from  all  these  consequences  he  is  to  be  held  absolv- 
ed, provided  that,  with  a  sincere  heart  and  a  faith 
unfeigned,  he  abjures  and  curses  the  heresies  he 
has  cherished,  as  well  as  every  other  heresy 
against  the  Catholic  Church.  In  order  that  his  of- 
fence might  not  go  altogether  unpunished,  that  h^ 
might  be  more  cautious  in  future,  and  be  a  warn- 
ing to  others  to  abstain  from  similar  delinquencies, 
it  was  also  decreed  that  his  Dialogues  should  be 
prohibited  by  public  edict ;  that  he  himself  should 
be  condemned  to  the  prison  of  the  Inquisition  du- 


92  GALILEO. 

ring  their  pleasure,  and  that,  in  the  course  of  the 
next  three  years,  he  should  recite  once  a  week  the 
seven  penitential  psalms. 

The  ceremony  of  Galileo's  abjuration  was  one 
of  exciting  interest  and  of  awful  formality.  Cloth- 
ed in  the  sackcloth  of  a  repentant  criminal,  the 
venerable  sage  fell  upon  his  knees  before  the  as. 
sembled  cardinals ;  and,  laying  his  hands  upon  the 
Holy  Evangelists,  he  invoked  the^Divine  aid  in  ab. 
juring  and  detesting,  and  vowing  never  again  to  \ 
teach,  the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  and  of  the 
sun's  stability.  He  pledged  himself  that  he  would 
never  again,  either  in  words  or  in  writing,  propa- 
gate such  heresies;  and  he  swore  that  he  would 
fulfil  and  observe  the  penances  which  had  been  in- 
flicted upon  him.*  At  the  conclusion  of  this  cere- 
mony, in  which  he  recited  his  abjuration  word  for 
word,  and  then  signed  it,  he  was  conveyed,  in  con- 
formity with  his  sentence,  to  the  prison  of  the  In- 
quisition. 

The  account  which  we  have  now  given  of  the 
trial  and  the  sentence  of  Galileo  is  pregnant  with 
the  deepest  interest  and  instruction.  Human  na- 

*  It  has  been  said,  but  upon  what  authority  we  cannot  state, 
that  when  Galileo  rose  from  his  knees,  he  stamped  on  the 
ground,  and  said  in  a  whisper  to  one  of  his  friends,  "  E  pur 
si  muove."  "It  does  move,  though." — Life  of  Galileo,  Lib. 
Useful  Knowledge,  part  ii.,  p.  63. 


GALILEO.  93 

ture  is  here  drawn  in  its  darkest  colouring ;  and  in 
surveying  the  melancholy  picture,  it  is  difficult  to 
decide  whether  religion  or  philosophy  has  *been 
most  degraded.  While  we  witness  the  presumptu- 
ous priest  pronouncing  infallible  the  decrees  of  his 
own  erring  judgment,  we  see  the  high-minded  phi- 
losopher abjuring  the  eternal  and  immutable  truths 
which  he  had  himself  the  glory  of  establishing. 
In  the  ignorance  and  prejudices  of  the  age — in  a 
too  literal  interpretation  of  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture— in  a  mistaken  respect  for  the  errors  that 
had  become  venerable  from  their  antiquity — and 
in  the  peculiar  position  which  Galileo  had  taken 
among  the  avowed  enemies  of  the  Church,  we  may 
find  the  elements  of  an  apology,  poor  though  it  be, 
for  the  conduct  of  the  Inquisition.  But  what  ex- 
cuse can  we  devise  for  the  humiliating  confession 
and  abjuration  of  Galileo  ?  Why  did  this  master- 
spirit of  the  age — this  high-priest  of  the  stars — 
this  representative  of  science — this  hoary  sage, 
whose  career  of  glory  was  near  its  consummation 
— why  did  he  reject  the  crown  of  martyrdom  which 
he  had  himself  coveted,  and  which,  plaited  with  im- 
mortal laurels,  was  about  to  descend  upon  his  head  ? 
If,  in  place  of  disavowing  the  laws  of  Nature,  and 
surrendering  in  his  own  person  the  intellectual  dig- 
nity of  his  species,  he  had  boldly  asserted  the  truth 
of  his  opinions,  and  confided  his  character  to  pos- 


94  GALILEO. 

terity,  and  his  cause  to  an  all-ruling  Providence,  he 
would  have  strung  up  the  hair-suspended  sabre,  and 
disarmed  forever  the  hostility  which  threatened  to 
overwhelm  him.  The  philosopher,  however,  was 
supported  only  by  philosophy ;  and  in  the  love  of 
truth  he  found  a  miserable  substitute  for  the  hopes 
of  the  martyr.  Galileo  cowered  under  the  fear  of 
man,  and  his  submission  was  the  salvation  of  the 
Church.  •  The  sword  of  the  Inquisition  descended 
on  his  prostrate  neck ;  and  though  its  stroke  was 
not  physical,  yet  it  fell  with  a  moral  influence  fa- 
tal to  the  character  of  its  victim  and  to  the  dignity 
of  science. 

In  studying  with  attention  this  portion  of  scien- 
tific history,  the  reader  will  not  fail  to  perceive 
that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  driven  into  a  dilem- 
ma, from  which  the  submission  and  abjuration  of 
Galileo  could  alone  extricate  it.  He  who  confess- 
es a  crime  and  denounces  its  atrocity,  not  only 
sanctions,  but  inflicts  the  punishment  which  is  an- 
nexed to  it.  Had  Galileo  declared  his  innocence 
and  avowed  his  sentiments,  and  had  he  appealed  to 
the  past  conduct  of  the  Church  itself,  to  the  ac- 
knowledged opinions  of  its  dignitaries,  and  even  to 
the  acts  of  its  pontiffs,  he  would  have  at  once  con- 
founded his  accusers  and  escaped  from  their  toils. 
After  Copernicus,  himself  a  Catholic  priest,  had 
openly  maintained  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  tho 


GALILEO.  95 

stability  of  the  sun;  after  he  had  dedicated  the 
work  which  advocated  these  opinions  to  Pope  Paul 
III.,  on  the  express  ground  that  the  authority  of  the 
pontiff  might  silence  the  calumnies  of  those  who 
attacked  these  opinions  by  arguments  drawn  from 
Scripture ;  after  the  Cardinal  Schonberg  and  the 
Bishop  of  Culm  had  urged  Copernicus  to  publish 
the  new  doctrines ;  and  after  the  Bishop  of  Erme- 
land  had  erected  a  monument  to  commemorate  his 
great  discoveries,  how  could  the  Church  of  Rome 
have  appealed  to  its  pontifical  decrees  as  the  ground 
of  persecuting  and  punishing  Galileo?  Even  in 
later  times  the  same  doctrines  had  been  propaga- 
ted with  entire  toleration :  nay,  in  the  very  year  of 
Galileo's  first  persecution,  Paul  Anthony  Fosca- 
rinus,  a  learned  Carmelite  monk,  wrote  a  pamphlet, 
in  which  he  illustrates  and  defends  the  mobility  of 
the  earth,  and  endeavours  to  reconcile  to  this  new 
doctrine  the  passages  of  Scripture  which  had  been 
employed  to  subvert  it.  This  very  singular  pro- 
duction  was  dated  from  the  Carmelite  convent  at 
Naples ;  was  dedicated  to  the  very  reverend  Se- 
bastian Fantoni,  general  of  the  Carmelite  order; 
and,  sanctioned  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  it 
was  published  at  Naples  in  1615,  the  very  year  of 
the  first  persecution  of  Galileo. 

Nor  was  this  the  only  defence  of  the  Copernican 
system  which  issued  from  the  bosom  of  the  Church. 


96  GALILEO. 

Thomas  Campanella,  a  Calabrian  monk,  published 
in  1622  "  An  Apology  for  Galileo"  and  he  even 
dedicates  it  to  D.  Boniface,  cardinal  of  Cajeta. 
Nay,  it  appears  from  the  dedication  that  he  under- 
took the  work  at  the  command  of  the  cardinal,  and 
that  the  examination  of  the  question  had  been  in- 
trusted to  the  cardinal  by  the  Holy  Senate.  After 
an  able  defence  of  his  friend,  Campanella  refers,  at 
the  conclusion  of  his  apology,  to  the.  suppression  of 
Galileo's  writings,  and  justly  observes  that  the  ef- 
fect of  such  a  measure  would  be  to  make  them  more 
generally  read  and  more  highly  esteemed.  The 
boldness  of  the  apologist,  however,  is  wisely  tem- 
pered with  the  humility  of  the  ecclesiastic  ;  and  he 
concludes  his  work  with  the  declaration,  that  in  all 
his  opinions,  whether  written  or  to  be  written,  he 
submits  himself  to  the  opinions  of  the  Holy  Mother 
Church  of  Rome  and  to  the  judgment  of  his  su- 
periors. 

By  these  proceedings  of  the  dignitaries,  as  well 
as  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  had 
been  tolerated  for  more  than  a  century,  the  decrees 
of  the  pontiffs  against  the  doctrine  of  the  earth's 
motion  were  virtually  repealed,  and  Galileo  might 
have  pleaded  them  with  success  in  arrest  of  judg- 
ment. Unfortunately,  however,  for  himself  and  for 
science,  he  acted  otherwise.  By  admitting  their 
authority,  he  revived  in  fresh  force  these  obsolete 


GALILEO.  97 

and  obnoxious  enactments ;  and  by  yielding  to  their 
power,  he  riveted  for  another  century  the  almost 
broken  chains  of  spiritual  despotism. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  in  the  annals  of  heresy  and 
sedition,  that  opinions  maintained  with  impunity  by 
one  individual,  have,  in  the  same  age,  brought  oth- 
ers to  the  stake  or  to  the  scaffold.  The  results  of 
deep  research  or  extravagant  speculation  seldom 
provoke  hostility  when  meekly  announced  as  the  de* 
ductions  of  reason  or  the  convictions  of  conscience. 
As  the  dreams  of  a  recluse  or  of  an  enthusiast, 
they  may  excite  pity  or  call  forth  contempt ;  but, 
like  seed  quietly  cast  into  the  earth,  they  will  rot 
and  germinate  according  to  the  vitality  with  which 
they  are  endowed.  But  if  new  and  startling  opin- 
ions are  thrown  in  the  face  of  the  community — if 
they  are  uttered  in  triumph  or  in  insult— in  con- 
tempt of  public  opinion,  or  in  derision  of  cherished 
errors,  they  lose  the  comeliness  of  truth  in  the  ran* 
cour  of  their  propagation  ;  and  they  are  like  seed 
scattered  in  a  hurricane,  which  only  irritates  and 
blinds  the  husbandman.  [  Had  Galileo  concluded 
his  System  of  the  World  with  the  quiet  peroration 
of  his  apologist  Campanella,  and  dedicated  it  to  the 
pope,  it  might  have  stood  in  the  library  of  the  Vat- 
ican beside  the  cherished  though  equally  heretical 
volume  of  Copernicus/ 

In  the  abjuration  of  his  opinions  by  Galileo  Pope 
I 


98  GALILEO. 

Urban  VIII.  did  not  fail  to  observe  the  full  extent 
of  his  triumph,  and  he, exhibited  the  utmost  sagaci- 
ty in  the  means  which  he  employed  to  secure  it. 
While  he  endeavoured  to  overawe  the  enemies  of 
the  Church  by  the  formal  promulgation  of  Galileo's 
sentence  and  abjuration,  and  by  punishing  the  offi- 
cials who  had  assisted  in  obtaining  the  license  to 
print  his  work,  he  treated  Galileo  with  the  utmost 
lenity,  and  yielded  to  every  request  that  was  made 
to  diminish,  and  almost  suspend,  the  constraint 
under  which  he  lay.  The  sentence  of  abjuration 
was  ordered  to  be  publicly  read  at  several  univer- 
sities. At  Florence  the  ceremonial  was  performed 
in  the  Church  of  Sante  Croce,  and  the  friends  and 
disciples  of  Galileo  were  especially  summoned  to 
witness  the  public  degradation  of  their  master. 
The  inquisitor  at  Florence  was  ordered  to  be  rep- 
rimanded for  his  conduct ;  and  Riccardi,  the  mas- 
ter of  the  sacred  palace,  and  Ciampoli,  the  secre- 
tary of  Pope  Urban  himself,  were  dismissed  from 
their  situations. 

Galileo  had  remained  only  four  days  in  the  pris- 
on of  the  Inquisition,  when,  on  the  application  of 
Niccolini,  the  Tuscan  ambassador,  he  was  allowed 
to  reside  with  him  in  his  palace.  As  Florence  still 
suffered  under  the  contagious  disease  which  we 
have  already  mentioned,  it  was  proposed  that  Si- 
enna should  be  the  place  of  Galileo's  confinement, 


GAtlLEO.  99 

and  that  his  residence  should  be  in  one  of  the  con- 
vents- of  that  city.  Niccolini,  however,  recom- 
mended the  palace  of  the  Archbishop  Piccolomini 
as  a  more  suitable  residence  ;  and  though  the  arch- 
bishop was  one  of  Galileo's  best  friends,  the  pope 
agreed  to  the  arrangement,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
July  Galileo  quitted  Rome  for  Sienna. 

After  having  spent  nearly  six  months  under  the 
hospitable  roof  of  his  friend,  with  no  other  re- 
straint than  that  of  being  confined  to  the  limits  of 
the  palace,  Galileo  was  permitted  to  return  to  his 
villa  near  Florence  under  the  same  restrictions ; 
and  as  the  contagious  disease  had  disappeared  in 
Tuscany,  he  was  able,  in  the  month  of  December, 
to  re-enter  his  own  house  at  Arcetri,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days. 


100  GALILfeO. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Galileo  loses  his  favourite  Daughter. — He  falls  into  a  state  of 
Melancholy  and  ill  Health. — Is  allowed  to  go  to  Florence 
for  its  Recovery  in  1638,  but  is  prevented  from  leaving  his 
House  or  receiving  his  Friends. — His  Friend  Castelli  per- 
mitted to  visit  him  in  the  Presence  of  an  Officer  of  the  In- 
quisition.— He  composes  his  celebrated  Dialogues  on  Local 
Motion. — Discovers  the  Moon's  Libration. — Loses  the  Sight 
of  one  Eye. — The  other  Eye  attacked  by  the  same  Disease. 
— Is  struck  Blind. — Negotiates  with  the  Dutch  Government 
respecting  his  Method  of  finding  the  Longitude. — He  is  al- 
lowed free  Intercourse  with  his  Friends. — His  Illness  and 
Death  in  1642. — His  Epitaph. — His  Social,  Moral,  and  Sci- 
entific Character. 

ALTHOUGH  Galileo  had  now  the  happiness  of  re- 
joining  his  family  under  their  paternal-  roof,  yet, 
like  all  sublunary  blessings,  it  was  but  of  short  du- 
ration. His  favourite  daughter  Maria,  who,  along 
with  her  sister,  had  joined  the  convent  of  St.  Mat- 
thew in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arcetri,  had  looked 
forward  to  the  arrival  of  her  father  with  the  most 
affectionate  anticipations.  She  hoped  that  her  fil- 
ial devotion  might  form  some  compensation  for  the 
malignity  of  his  enemies,  and  she  eagerly  assumed 
the  labour  of  reciting  weekly  the  seven  penitentiary 
psalms  which  formed  part  of  her  father's  sentence. 


GALILEO.  101 

These  sacred  duties,  however,  wer,e  destined  to 
terminate  almost  at  the  moment  they  jvere  begun. 
She  was  seized  with  a  fatal  illness  in  the  same, 
month  in  which  she  rejoined  her  parent,  and  btiferj 
the  month  of  April  she  was  no  more.  This  heavy 
blow,  so  suddenly  struck,  overwhelmed  Galileo  in 
the  deepest  agony.  Owing  to  the  decline  of  his 
health  and  the  recurrence  of  his  old  complaints, 
he  was  unable  to  oppose  to  this  mental  suffering 
the  constitutional  energy  of  his  mind.  The  bul- 
warks of  his  heart  broke  down,  and  a  flood  of 
grief  desolated  his  manly  and  powerful  mind.  He 
felt,  as  he  expressed  it,  that  he  was  incessantly 
called  by  his  daughter ;  his  pulse  intermitted  ;  his 
heart  was  agitated  with  unceasing  palpitations  ;  his 
appetite  entirely  left  him,  and  he  considered  his 
dissolution  so  near  at  hand  that  he  would  not  per- 
mit his  son  Vicenzo  to  set  out  upon  a  journey 
which  he  had  contemplated. 

From  this  state  of  melancholy  and  indisposition 
Galileo  slowly,  though  partially  recovered,  and, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  medical  assistance,  he 
requested  leave  to  go  to  Florence.  His  enemies, 
however,  refused  this  application,  and  he  was  given 
to  understand  that  any  additional  importunities 
would  be  visited  with  a  more  vigilant  surveillance. 
He  remained,  therefore,  five  years  at  Arcetri,  from 
1634  to  1638,  without  any  remission  of  his  con- 
12 


102  GALILEO. 

finement,  and  pursuing  his  studies  under  the  influ- 
ence  cf  a  continued  and  general  indisposition. 

There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  Galileo  or  his 
friends  renewed  their  application  to  the  Church  of 
Rome ;  but  in  1638  the  pope  transmitted,  through 
the  inquisitor  Fariano,  his  permission  that  he 
might  remove  to  Florence  for  the  recovery  of  his 
health,  on  the  condition  that  he  should  present  him. 
self  at  the  office  of  the  inquisitor  to  learn  the  terms 
upon  which  this  indulgence  was  granted.  Galileo 
accepted  of  the  kindness  thus  unexpectedly  proffer- 
ed. But  the  conditions  upon  which  it  was  given 
were  more  severe  than  he  expected.  He  was  pro- 
hibited  from  leaving  his  house  or  admitting  his 
friends  ;  and  so  sternly  was  this  system  pursued, 
that  he  required  a  special  order  for  attending  mass 
during  Passion  Week. 

The  severity  of  this  order  was  keenly  felt  by 
Galileo.  While  he  remained  at  Arcetri,  his  seclu- 
sion from  the  world  would  have  been  an  object  of 
choice  if  it  had  not  been  the  decree  of  a  tribunal ; 
but  to  be  debarred  from  the  conversation  of  his 
friends  in  Florence — in  that  city  where  his  genius 
had  been  idolized  and  where  his  fame  had  become 
immortal — was  an  aggravation  of  punishment  which 
he  was  unable  to  bear.  With  his  accustomed  kind, 
ness,  the  grand-duke  made  a  strong  representation 
on  the  subject  to  his  ambassador  at  the  court  of 


GALILEO.  103 

Rome.  He  stated  that,  from  his  great  age  and  in- 
firmities, Galileo's  career  was  near  its  close  ;  that 
he  possessed  many  valuable  ideas,  which  the  world 
might  lose  if  they  were  not  matured  and  conveyed 
to  his  friends  ;  and  that  Galileo  was  anxious  to 
make  these  communications  to  Father  Castelli,  who 
was  then  a  stipendiary  of  the  court  of  Rome.  The 
grand-duke  commanded  his  ambassador  to  see  Cas. 
telli  on  the  subject ;  to  urge  him  to  obtain  leave 
from  the  pope  to  spend  a  few  months  in  Florence ; 
and  to  supply  him  with  money  and  everything  that 
was  necessary  for  his  journey.  Influenced  by  this 
kind  and  liberal  message,  Castelli  obtained  an  au- 
dience of  the  pope,  and  requested  leave  to  pay  a 
visit  to  Florence.  Urban  -instantly  suspected  the 
object  of  his  journey ;  and,  upon  Castelli's  acknowl- 
edging that  he  could  not  possibly  refrain  from  see- 
ing Galileo,  he  received  permission  to  visit  him  in 
the  company  of  an  officer  of  the  Inquisition.  Cas- 
telli accordingly  went  to  Florence,  and  a  few 
months  afterward  Galileo  was  ordered  to  return  to 
Arcetri. 

During  Galileo's  confinement  at  Sienna  and  Ar- 
cetri, between  1633  and  1638,  his  time  was  prin- 
cipally occupied  in  the  composition  of  his  "  Dia- 
logues on  Local  Motion,"  in  which  he  treats  of  the 
strength  and  cohesion  of  solid  bodies,  of  the  laws 
of  uniform  and  accelerated  motions,  of  the  motion 


104  GALILEO. 

of  projectiles,  and  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  solids. 
This  remarkable  work,  which  was  considered  by 
its  author  as  the  best  of  his  productions,  was  print- 
ed  by  Louis  Elzevir  at  Amsterdam,  and  dedicated 
to  the  Count  de  Noailles,  the  French  ambassador 
at  Rome.  Various  attempts  to  have  it  printed  in 
Germany  had  failed  ;  and,  in  order  to  save  himself 
from  the  malignity  of  his  enemies,  he  was  obliged 
to  pretend  that  the  edition  published  in  Holland  had 
been  printed  from  a  MS.  intrusted  to  the  French 
ambassador. 

Although  Galileo  had  for  a  long  time  abandoned 
his  astronomical  studies,  yet  his  attention  was  di- 
rected, about  the  year  1636,  to  a  curious  appear- 
ance  in  the  lunar  disk,  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  moon's  libration.  When  we  examine  with 
a  telescope  the  outline  of  the  moon,  we  observe  that 
certain  parts  of  her  disk,  which  are  seen  at  one 
time,  are  invisible  at  another.  This  change  or  li- 
bration is  of  four  different  kinds,  viz.,  the  diurnal 
libration,  the  libration  in  longitude,  the  libration  in 
latitude,  and  the  spheroidal  libration.  Galileo  dis- 
covered the  first  of  these  kinds  of  libration,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  had  some  knowledge  of  the  second  ; 
but  the  third  was  discovered  by  Hevelius,  and  the 
fourth  by  Lagrange. 

This  curious  discovery  was-  the  result  of  the  last 
telescopic  observations  of  Galileo.  Although  his 


GALILEO.  105 

right  eye  had  for  some  years  lost  its  power^  yet  his 
general  vision  was  sufficiently  perfect  to  enable  him 
to  carry  on  his  usual  researches.  In  1636,  how- 
ever, this  affection  of  his  eye  became  more  serious, 
and  in  1637  his  left  eye  was  attacked  with  the 
same  disease.  His  medical  friends  at  first  sup- 
posed that  cataracts  were  formed  in  the  crystalline 
lens,  and  anticipated  a  cure  from  the  operation  of 
couching.  These  hopes  were  fallacious.  The  dis- 
ease turned  out  to  be  in  the  cornea,  and  every  at- 
tempt to  restore  its  transparency  was  fruitless. 
In  a  few  months  the  white  cloud  covered  the  whole 
aperture  of  the  pupil,  and  Galileo  became  totally 
blind.  This  sudden  and  unexpected  calamity  had 
almost  overwhelmed  Galileo  and  his  friends.  In 
writing  to  a  correspondent  he  exclaims,  "  Alas  ! 
your  dear  friend  and  servant  has  become  totally 
and  irreparably  blind.  These  heavens,  this  earth, 
this  universe,  which  by  wonderful  observation  I  had 
enlarged  a  thousand  times  beyond  the  belief  of  past 
ages,  are  henceforth  shrunk  into  the  narrow  space 
which  I  myself  occupy.  So  it  pleases  God;  it 
shall  therefore  please  me  also."  His  friend,  Fa- 
ther Castelli,  deplores  the  calamity  in  the  same 
tone  of  pathetic  sublimity :  "  The  noblest  eye," 
says  he,  "  which  Nature  ever  made  is  darkened ; 
an  eye  so  privileged,  and  gifted  with  such  rare  pow- 
ers, that  it  may  truly  be  said  to  have  seen  more 


106  GALILEO. 

than  the  eyes  of  all  that  are  gone,  and  to  have 
opened  the  eyes  of  all  that  are  to  come." 

Although  Galileo  had  been  thwarted  in  his  at- 
tempt to  introduce  into  the  Spanish  marine  his  new 
method  of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea,  yet  he  never 
lost  sight  of  an  object  to  which  he  attached  the 
highest  importance.  As  the  formation  of  correct 
tables  of  the  motion  of  Jupiter's  satellites  was  a  ne- 
cessary preliminary  to  its  introduction,  he  had  oc- 
cupied himself  for  twenty -four  years  in  observations 
for  this  purpose,  and  he  had  made  considerable 
progress  in  this  laborious  task.  After  the  publica- 
tion  of  his  "  Dialogues  on  Motion"  in  1636,  he  re- 
newed his  attempts  to  bring  his  method  into  actual 
use.  For  this  purpose  he  addressed  himself  to 
Lorenzo  Real,  who  had  been  the  Dutch  governor- 
general  in  India,  and  offered  the  free  use  of  his 
method  to  the  States-general  of  Holland.*  The 

*  It  is  a  carious  fact,  that  Morin  had  about  this  time  pro- 
posed to  determine  the  longitude  by  the  moon's  distance  from 
a  fixed  star,  and  that  the  commissioners  assembled  in  Paris  to 
examine  it  requested  Galileo's  opinion  of  its  value  and  practi- 
cability. Galileo's  opinion  was  highly  unfavourable.  He  saw 
clearly,  and  explained  distinctly,  the  objection  to  Morin's 
method,  arising  from  the  imperfection  of  the  lunar  tables,  and 
the  inadequacy  of  astronomical  instruments  ;  but  he  seemed 
not  to  be  conscious  that  the  very  same  objections  applied  with 
eyen  greater  force  to  his  own  method,  which  has  since  been 


GALILEO.  107 

Dutch  government  received  this  proposal  with  an 
anxious  desire  to  have  it  carried  into  effect.  At 
the  instigation  of  Constantine  Huygens,  the  father 
of  the  illustrious  Huygens,  and  the  secretary  to  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  they  appointed  commissioners  to 
communicate  with  Galileo  ;  and  while  they  trans- 
mitted  him  a  gold  chain  as  a  mark  of.  their  esteem, 
they  at  the  same  time  assured  him  that,  if  his  plan 
should  prove  successful,  it  would  not  pass  unreward- 
ed. The  commissioners  entered  into  an  active 
correspondence  with  Galileo,  and  had  even  appoint- 
ed one  of  their  number  to  communicate  personally 
with  him  in  Italy.  Lest  this,  however,  should  ex- 
cite the  jealousy  of  the  court  of  Rome,  Galileo  ob- 
jected to  the  arrangement,  so  that  the  negotiation 
was  carried  on  solely  by  correspondence. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  Galileo  was  struck  with 
blindness.  His  friend  and  pupil,  Renieri,  under- 
took in  this  emergency  to  arrange  and  complete 
his  observations  and  calculations ;  but,  before  he 
had  made  much  progress  in  the  arduous  task,  each 
of  the  four  commissioners  died  in  succession,  and 
it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  Constantine  Huy- 
gens succeeded  in  renewing  the  scheme.  It  was 
again  obstructed,  however,  by  the  death  of  Galileo ; 
and  when  Renieri  was  about  to  publish,  by  the  or- 

supplanted  by  that  of  the  French  savant. — See  Life  of  Galileo, 
Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  p.  94. 


108  GALILEO. 

der  of  the  grand-duke,  the  "  Ephemeris"  and  "  Ta- 
bles  of  the  Jovian  Planets,"  he  was  attacked  with 
a  mortal  disease,  and  the  manuscripts  of  Galileo, 
which  he  was  on  the  eve  of  publishing,  were  never 
more  heard  of.  By  such  a  series  of  misfortunes 
were  the  plans  of  Galileo  and  of  the  States-general 
completely  overthrown.  It  is  some  consolation, 
however,  to  know  that  neither  science  nor  naviga- 
tion suffered  any  severe  loss.  Notwithstanding 
the  perfection  of  our  present  tables  of  Jupiter's  sat- 
ellites, and  of  the  astronomical  instruments  by  which 
their  eclipse  may  be  observed,  the  method  of  Gal- 
ileo is  still  impracticable  at  sea. 

In  consequence  of  the  strict  seclusion  to  which 
Galileo  had  been  subjected,  he  was  in  the  practice 
of  dating  his  letters  from  his  prison  at  Arcetri ;  but 
after  he  had  lost  the  use  of  his  eyes,  the  Inquisition 
seems  to  have  relaxed  its  severity,  and  to  have  al- 
lowed  him  the  freest  intercourse  with  his  friends. 
The  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany  paid  him  frequent  vis- 
its ;  and  among  the  celebrated  strangers  who  came 
from  distant  lands  to  see  the  ornament  of  Italy, 
were  Gassendi,  Deodati,  and  our  illustrious  coun- 
tryman Milton.  During  the  last  three  years  of  his 
life,  his  eminent  pupil  Viviani  formed  one  of  his 
family  ;  and  in  October,  1641,  the  celebrated  Tor- 
ricelli,  another  of  his  pupils,  was  admitted  to  the 
same  distinction. 


GALILEO.  109 

Though  the  powerful  mind  of  Galileo  still  retain- 
ed its  vigour,  yet  his  debilitated  frame  was  exhaust- 
ed with  mental  labour.  He  often  complained  that 
his  head  was  too  busy  for  his  body,  and  that  the 
continuity  of  his  studies  was  frequently  broken  with 
attacks  of  hypochondria,  want  of  sleep,  and  acute 
rheumatic  pains.  Along  with  these  calamities  he 
was  afflicted  with  another  still  more  severe — with 
deafness  almost  total ;  but  though  he  was  now  ex- 
cluded from  all  communication  with  the  external 
world,  yet  his  mind  still  grappled  with  the  material 
universe ;  and  while  he  was  studying  the  force  of 
percussion,  and  preparing  for  a  continuation  of  his 
"  Dialogues  on  Motion,"  he  was  attacked  with  fever 
and  palpitation  of  the  heart,  which,  after  continuing 
two  months,  terminated  fatally  on  the  8th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1642,  in  the  78th  year  of  his  age. 

Having  died  in  the  character  of  a  prisoner  of 
the  Inquisition,  this  odious  tribunal  disputed  his 
right  of  making  a  will  and  of  being  buried  in  con- 
secrated ground.  These  objections,  however,  were 
withdrawn;  but  though  a  large  sum  was  subscri- 
bed for  erecting  a  monument  to  him  in  the  Church 
of  Santa  Croce,  in  Florence,  the  pope  would  not 
permit  the  design  to  be  carried  into  execution. 
His  sacred  remains  were  therefore  deposited  in  an 
obscure  corner  of  the  church,  and  remained  for 
more  than  thirty  years  unmarked  with  any  monu- 
K 


110  GALILEO. 

mental  tablet.  The  following  epitaph,  given  with- 
out any  remark  in  the  Leyden  edition  of  his  Dia- 
logues, is,  we  presume,  the  one  which  was  inscri- 
bed on  a  tablet  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  : 

GALILEO  GALILEI  Florentine, 
Philosopho  et  Geometrae  vere  lynceo, 

Naturae  GEdipo, 

Mirabilium  semper  inventorum  machinatori, 
Qui  inconcessa  adhuc  mortalibus  gloria 

Caelorum  provincias  auzit 

Et  universe  xledit  incrementum  : 

Non  enim  vitreos  spherarum  orbes 

Fragilesque  Stellas  conflavit : 

Sed  aeterna  mundi  corpore 

Mediceae  beneficent!®  dedicavit, 

Cujus  incxtincta  glorise  cupiditas 

Ut  oculos  nationum 
Saeculorumque  omnium 

Videre  doceret, 

Proprios  impendit  oculos. 

Cum  jam  nil  amplius  haberet  natura 

Quod  ipse  videret. 

Cujus  inventa  vix  intra  rerum  limites  comprehensa 
Firmamentum  ipsum  non  solum  continet, 

Sed  etiam  recipit. 

Qui  relictis  tot  scientiarum  monumentis 
Plura  secum  tulit,  quam  reliquit. 

Gravi  enim 

Sed  nondum  affecta  senectute, 

Novis  conternplationibus 

Majorem  gloriam  affectans 

Inexplebilem  sapientiae  animam 


GALILEO.  Ill 

Immature  nobis  obitu 

Exhalavit 
Anno  Domini 

MCXLII. 
Stalls  suae 

LXXVIII. 

At  his  death  in  1703  Viviani  purchased  his  prop- 
erty, with  the  charge  of  erecting  a  monument  over 
Galileo's  remains  and  his  own.  This  design  was 
not  carried  into  effect  till  1737,  at  the  expense  of 
the  family  of  Nelli,  when  both  their  bodies  were 
disinterred,  and  removed  to  the  site  of  the  splendid 
monument  which  now  covers  them.  This  monu- 
ment contains  the  bust  of  Galileo,  with  figures  of 
Geometry  and  Astronomy.  It  was  designed  by 
Giulio  Foggini.  Galileo's  bust  was  executed  by 
Giovanni  Battista  Foggini ;  the  figure  of  Astron- 
omy by  Vincenzio  Foggini,  his  son ;  and  that  of 
Geometry  by  Girolamo  Ticciati. 

Galileo's  house  at  Arcetri  still  remains.  In 
1821  it  belonged  to  one  Signer  Alimari,  having 
been  preserved  in  the  state  in  which  it  was  left  by 
Galileo;  it  stands  very  near  the  convent  of  St. 
Matthew,  and  about  a  mile  to  the  southeast  of 
Florence.  An  inscription  by  Nelli,  over  the  door 
of  the  house,  still  remains. 

The  character  of  Galileo,  whether  we  view  him 
as  a  member  of  the  social  circle  or  as  a  man  of  sci- 


112  GALILEO. 

ence,  presents  many  interesting  and  instructive 
points  of  contemplation.  Unfortunate,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  immoral,  in  his  domestic  relations, 
he  did  not  derive  from  that  hallowed  source  all  the 
enjoyments  which  it  generally  yields ;  and  it  was 
owing  to  this  cause,  perhaps,  that  he  was  more  fond 
of  society  than  might  have  been  expected  from  his 
studious  habits.  His  habitual  cheerfulness  and 
gayety,  and  his  affability  and  frankness  of  manner, 
rendered  him  a  universal  favourite  among  his 
friends.  Without  any  of  the  pedantry  of  exclusive 
talent,  and  without  any  of  that  ostentation  which 
often  marks  the  man  of  limited  though  profound 
acquirements,  Galileo  never  conversed  upon  sci- 
entific or  philosophical  subjects  except  among  those 
who  were  capable  of  understanding  them.  The 
extent  of  his  general  information,  indeed,  his  great 
literary  knowledge,  but,  above  all,  his  retentive 
memory,  stored  with  the  legends  and  the  poetry  of 
ancient  times,  saved  him  from  the  necessity  of 
drawing  upon  his  own  peculiar  studies  for  the 
topics  of  his  conversation. 

Galileo  was  not  less  distinguished  for  his  hospi- 
tality and  benevolence ;  he  was  liberal  to  the  poor, 
and  generous  in  the  aid  which  he  administered  to 
men  of  genius  and  talent,  who  often  found  a  com- 
fortable asylum  under  his  roof.  In  his  domestic 
economy  he  was  frugal  without  being  parsimo- 


GALILEO.  113 

nious.  His  hospitable  board  was  ever  ready  for 
the  reception  of  his  friends ;  and,  though  he  was 
himself  abstemious  in  his  diet,  he  seems  to  have 
been  a  lover  of  good  wines,  of  which  he  received 
always  the  choicest  varieties  out  of  the  grand, 
duke's  cellar.  This  peculiar  taste,  together  with 
his  attachment  to  a  country  life,  rendered  him  fond 
of  agricultural  pursuits,  and  induced  him  to  devote 
his  leisure  hours  to  the  cultivation  of  his  vine- 
yards. 

In  his  personal  appearance  Galileo  was  about  the 
middle  size,  and  of  a  square-built  but  well-propor- 
tioned frame.  His  complexion  was  fair,  his  eyes 
penetrating,  and  his  hair  of  a  reddish  hue.  His 
expression  was  cheerful  and  animated,  and  though 
his  temper  was  easily  ruffled,  yet  the  excitement 
was  transient,  and  the  cause  of  it  speedily  forgot- 
ten. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  traits  in  the  charac- 
ter of  Galileo  was  his  invincible  love  of  truth,  and 
his  abhorrence  of  that  spiritual  despotism  which 
had  so  long  brooded  over  Europe.  His  views, 
however,  were  too  liberal,  and  too  far  in  advance 
of  the  age  which  he  adorned  ;  and  however  much 
we  may  admire  the  noble  spirit  which  he  evinced 
and  the  personal  sacrifices  which  he  made  in  his 
struggle  for  truth,  we  must  yet  lament  the  hotness 
of  his  zeal  and  the  temerity  of  his  onset.  In  his 
K2 


114  ^GALILEO. 

contest  with  the  Church  of  Rome  he  fell  under  her 
victorious  banner  ;  and  though  his  cause  was  that 
of  truth  and  hers  that  of  superstition,  yet  the  sym- 
pathy of  Europe  was  not  roused  by  his  misfortunes. 
Under  the  sagacious  and  peaceful  sway  of  Coperni- 
cus astronomy  had  effected  a  glorious  triumph  over 
the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  but  under  the  bold  and 
uncompromising  sceptre  of  Galileo  all  her  con- 
quests were  irrecoverably  lost. 

The  scientific  character  of  Galileo,  and  his  meth- 
od of  investigating  truth,  demand  our  warmest  ad- 
miration. The  number  and  ingenuity  of  his  in- 
ventions, the  brilliant  discoveries  which  he  made  irr 
the  heavens,  and  the  depth  and  beauty  of  his  re- 
searches respecting  the  laws  of  motion,  have  gain- 
ed him  the  admiration  of  every  succeeding  age, 
and  have  placed  him  next  to  Newton  in  the  lists  of 
original  and  inventive  genius.  To  this  high  rank 
he  was  doubtless  elevated  by  the  inductive  process- 
es which  he  followed  in  all  his  inquiries.  Under 
the  sure  guidance  of  observation  and  experiment 
he  advanced  to  general  laws ;  -and  if  Bacon  had 
never  lived,  the  student  of  nature  would  have  found 
in  the  writings  and  labours  of  Galileo,  not  only  the 
boasted  principles  of  the  inductive  philosophy,  but 
also  their  practical  application  to  the  highest  ef- 
forts of  invention  and  discovery. 


LIFE 


OP 


TYCHO    BRAKE. 


LIFE    OF    TYCHO    BRAKE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Tycho's  Birth,  Family,  and  Education. — An  Eclipse  of  the 
Sun  turns  his  Attention  to  Astronomy. — Studies  Law  at 
Leipsic,  but  pursues  Astronomy  by  Stealth. — His  Uncle's 
Death. — He  returns  to  Copenhagen,  and  resumes  his  Ob- 
servations.— Revisits  Germany. — Fights  a  Duel,  and  loses 
his  Nose. — Visits  Augsburg,  and  meets  Hainzel,  who  as- 
sists him  in  making  a  large  Quadrant. — Revisits  Denmark, 
and  is  warmly  received  by  the  King. — He  settles  at  his 
Uncle's  Castle  of  Herritzvold. — His  Observatory  and  Lab- 
oratory.— Discovers  the  new  Star  in  Cassiopeia. — Account 
of  this  remarkable  Body. — Tycho's  Marriage  with  a  Peas- 
ant-girl, which  irritates  his  Friends. — His  Lectures  on  As- 
tronomy.— He  visits  the  Prince  of  Hesse. — Attends  the 
Coronation  of  the  Emperor  Rudolph  at  Ratisbon. — He  re- 
turns to  Denmark. 

AMONG  the  distinguished  men  who  were  destined 
tQ-jevive  the  sciencesjind  to  establish  the  true  sys- 
tem of  the  universe,  Tycho  Brahe  holds  a  conspic- 
uous place.  He  was  born  on  the  14th  December, 
1546,  at  Knudstorp,  the  estate  of  his  ancestors, 
which  is  situated  near  Helsingborg,  in  Scania,  and 
was  the  eldest  son  and  second  child  of  a  family  of 
five  sons  and  five  daughters.  His  father,  Otto 


118  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

Brahe,  who  was  descended  from  a  noble  Swedish 
family,  was  in  such  straitened  circumstances  that 
he  resolved  to  educate  his  sons  for  a  military  pro- 
fession;  but  Tycho  seems  to  have  disliked  the 
choice  that  was  made  for  him ;  and  his  next  broth- 
er, Steno,  who  appears  to  have  had  a  similar  feel- 
ing, exchanged  the  sword  for  the  more  peaceful  oc- 
cupation of  privy  councillor  to  the  king.  The  rest 
of  his  brothers,  though  of  senatorial  rank,  do  not 
seem  to  have  extended  the  renown  of  their  family ; 
but  their  youngest  sister,  Sophia,  is  represented  as 
an  accomplished  mathematician,  and  is  said  to  have 
devoted  her  mind  to  astronomy  as  well  as  to  the 
astrological  reveries  of  the  age. 

George  Brahe,  the  brother  of  Otto,  having  no 
children  of  his  own,  resolved  to  adopt  and  to  edu- 
cate one  of  his  nephews.  On  the  birth  of  Tycho, 
accordingly,  he  was  desirous  of  having  him  placed 
under  his  wife's  care ;  but  his  parents  could  not  be 
prevailed  upon  to  part  with  their  child  till  after  the 
birth  of  Steno,  their  second  son. 

Having  been  instructed  in  reading  and  writing 
under  proper  masters,  Tycho  began  the  study  of 
Latin  in  his  seventh  year,  and,  in  opposition  to 
his  father's  views,  he  prosecuted  it  for  five  years 
under  private  teachers,  from  whom  he  received 
also  occasional  instruction  in  poetry  and  the  belles, 
lettres. 


TYCHO   BRAHE.  119 

In  April,  1559,  about  three  years  after  his  fa- 
ther's death,  Tycho  was  sent  to  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  to  study  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  with 
the  view  of  preparing  for  the  study  of  the  law,  and 
qualifying  himself  for  some  of  those  political  offi- 
ces which  his  rank  entitled  him  to  expect.  In  this 
situation  he  contracted  no  fondness  for  any  partic- 
ular study ;  but  after  he  had  been  sixteen  months 
at  college,  an  event  occurred  which  directed  all  the 
powers  of  his  mind  to  the  science  of  astronomy. 
The  attention  of  the  public  had  been  long  fixed  on  a 
great  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  was  to  happen  on 
the  21st  of  August,  1560 ;  and  as  in  those  days  a 
phenomenon  of  this  kind  was  linked  with  the  des- 
tinies of  nations  as  well  as  of  individuals,  the  in- 
terest which  it  excited  was  as  intense  as  it  was 
general.  Tycho  watched  its  arrival  with  peculiar 
anxiety.  He  read  the  astrological  diaries  of  the 
day,  in  which  its  phases  and  its  consequences  were 
described  ;  and  when  he  saw  the  sun  darkened  at 
the  very  moment  that  had  been  predicted,  and  to 
the  very  extent  that  had  been  delineated,  he  resolv- 
ed to  make  himself  master  of  a  science  which  was 
capable  of  predicting  future  events,  and  especially 
that  branch  of  it  which  connected  these  events  with 
the  fortunes  and  destinies  of  man.  With  this  view 
he  purchased  the  Tabula  Bergenses,  calculated  by 
John  Stadius,  and  began  with  ardour  the  study  of 
the  planetary  motions. 


120  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

When  Tycho  had  completed  his  course  at  Co- 
penhagen, he  was  sent,  in  February,  1562,  under 
the  charge  of  a  tutor,  to  study  jurisprudence  at 
Leipsic.  Astronomy,  however,  engrossed  all  his 
thoughts  ;  and  he  had  no  sooner  escaped  from  the 
daily  surveillance  of  his  master,  than  he  rushed 
with  headlong  impetuosity  into  his  favourite  pur- 
suits. With  his  pocket-money  he  purchased  as- 
tronomical books,  which  he  read  in  secret ;  and  by 
means  of  a  celestial  globe  the  size  of  his  fist,  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  stars,  and  follow- 
ed them  night  after  night  through  the  heavens, 
when  sleep  had  lulled  the  vigilance  of  his  precep- 
tor. By  means  of  the  Ephemerides  of  Stadius,  he 
learned  to  distinguish  the  planets,  and  to  trace  them 
through  their  direct  and  retrograde  movements } 
and  having  obtained  the  Alphonsine  and  Prutenic 
Tables,  and  compared  his  own  calculations  and  ob- 
servations with  those  of  Stadius,  he  observed  great 
differences  in  the  results,  and  from  that  moment  he 
seems  to  have  conceived  the  design  of  devoting  his 
life  to  the  accurate  construction  of  tables,  which  he 
justly  regarded  as  the  basis  of  astronomy. 

With  this  view  he  applied  himself  secretly  to 
the  study  of  arithmetic  and  geometry,  and  with- 
out  the  assistance  of  a  master  he  acquired  that 
mathematical  knowledge  which  enabled  him  to  re- 
alize  these  early  aspirations.  His  ardour  for  as- 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  121 

tronomy  was  still  farther  inflamed,  and  the  resolu- 
tion which  it  inspired  still  farther  strengthened,  by 
the  great  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  which 
taok  place  in  August,  1563.  The  calculated  time 
of  this  phenomenon  differed  considerably  from  the 
true  time  which  was  observed ;  and  in  determining 
the  instant  of  conjunction,  Tycho  felt  in  the  strong- 
est manner  the  imperfection  of  the  instruments 
which  he  used.  For  this  purpose  he  employed  a 
sort  of  compass,  one  leg  of  which  was  directed  to 
one  planet,  and  the  second  to  the  other  planet  or, 
fixed  star  ;  and,  by  measuring  the  angular  opening 
between  them,  he  determined  the  distance  of  the 
two  celestial  bodies.  By  this  rude  contrivance  he 
found  that  the  Alphonsine  Tables  erred  a  whole 
month  in  the  time  of  conjunction,  while  the  Coper, 
nican  ones  were  at  least  several  days  in  error. 
To  this  celebrated  conjunction  Tycho  ascribed  the 
great  plague  which  in  subsequent  years  desolated 
Europe,  because  it  took  place  in  the  beginning  of 
Leo,  and  not  far  from  the  nebulous  stars  of  Cancer, 
two  of  the  zodiacal  signs  which  are  reckoned  by 
Ptolemy  "suffocating  and  pestilent!" 

There  dwelt  at  this  time  at  Leipsic  an  ingenious 
artisan  named  Scultetus,  who  was  employed  by 
Homelius,  the  professor,  of  mathematics  in  that 
city,  to  assist  him  in  the  construction  of  his  instru- 
ments. Having  become  acquainted  with  this  young 
L 


122  TYCHO    BRAHE. 

man,  Tycho  put  into  his  hand  a  wooden  radius, 
such  as  was  recommended  by  Gemma  Frisius,  for 
the  purpose  of  having  it  divided  in  the  manner 
adopted  by  Homelius ;  and  with  this  improved  in- 
strument  he  made  a  great  number  of  astronomical 
observations  out  of  his  window  without  ever  exci- 
ting  the  suspicions  of  his  tutor. 

Having  spent  three  years  at  Leipsic,  he  was 
about  to  make  the  tour  of  Germany,  when,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  uncle's  death,  he  was  summoned 
to  his  native  country  to  inherit  the  fortune  which 
had  been  left  him.  He  accordingly  quitted  Leip- 
sic about  the  middle  of  May,  1565,  and,  after  hav- 
ing arranged  his  domestic  concerns  in  Denmark, 
he  continued  his  astronomical  observations  with 
the  radius  constructed  for  him  by  Scultetus.  The 
ardour  with  which  he  pursued  his  studies  gave 
great  umbrage  to  his  friends  as  well  as  to  his  rela- 
tions. He  was  reproached  for  having  abandoned 
<.  the  profession  of  the  law  ;  his  astronomical  obser- 
vations were  ridiculed  as  not  only  useless,  but  de- 
grading ;  and  among  his  numerous  connexions,  his 
maternal  uncle,  Steno  Bille,  was  the  only  one  who 
applauded  him  for  following  the  bent  of  his  genius. 
Under  these  uncomfortable  circumstances  he  re- 
solved to  quit  his  country,  and  pay  a  visit  to  the 
most  interesting  cities  of  Germany. 

At  Wittemberg,  where  he  arrived  in  April,  1566, 


TYCHO   BRAHE.  123 

he  resumed  his  astronomical  observations ;  but,  in 
consequence  of  the  plague  having  broken  out  in 
that  city,  he  removed  to  Rostoch  in  the  following 
autumn.  Here  an  accident  occurred  which  had 
nearly  deprived  him  of  his  life.  On  the  10th  of  De- 
cember he  was  invited  to  a  wedding  feast ;  and, 
among  other  guests,  there  was  present  a  noble 
countryman  of  his  own,  Manderupius  Pasbergius. 
"Some  difference  having  arisen  between  them  on 
this  occasion,  they  parted  with  feelings  of  mutual 
displeasure.  On  the  27th  of  the  same  month  they 
met  again  at  some  festive  games,  and  having  re- 
vived their  former  quarrel,  they  agreed  to  settle 
their  differences  by  the  sword.  They  accordingly 
met  at  7  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  29th,  and 
fought  in  total  darkness.  In  this  blind  combat 
Manderupius  cut  off  the  whole  of  the  front  of  JTy- 
cho's  nose,  and  it  was  fortunate  for  astronomy  that 
his  more  valuable  organs  were  defended  by  so 
faithful  an  outpost.  The  quarrel,  which  is  said  to 
Kave  originated  in  a  difference  of  opinion  respect- 
ing their  mathematical  acquirements,  terminated 
here ;  and  Tycho  repaired  his  loss  by  cementing 
upon  his  face  a  nose  of  gold  and  silver,  which  is 
said  to  have  formed  a  good  imitation  of  the  original. 
During  the  years  1567  and  1568,  Tycho  contin- 
ued to  reside  at  Rostoch,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  months,  during  which  he  made  a  rapid  journey 


124  TYCHO   BRAHE. 

into  Denmark.  He  lived  in  a  house-in  the  College 
of  the  Jesuits,  which  he  had  rented  on  account  of 
its  fitness  for  celestial  observations  ;  but,  though  he 
intended  to  spend  the  winter  under  its  roof,  he  had 
made  no  arrangement  respecting  his  future  life, 
leaving  it,  as  he  said,  in  the  hands  of  Providence. 
A  desire,  however,  to  visit  the  "south'  of  Germany 
induced  him  to  quit  Rostoch,  and,  having  crossed 
the  Danube,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Augsburg. 

Upon  entering  this  ancient  city  Tycho  was  par- 
ticularly struck  with  the  grandeur  of  its  fortifica- 
tions, the  splendour  of  its  private  houses,  and  the 
beauty  of  its  fountains ;  and,  after  a  short  residence 
within  its  walls,  he  was  still  more  delighted  with  the 
industry  of  the  people,  the  refinement  of  the  higher 
classes,  and  the  love  of  literature  and  science  which 
was  cherished  by  its  wealthy  citizens.  Among  the 
interesting  acquaintances  which  he  formed  at  Augs- 
burg were  two  brothers,  John  and  Paul  Hainzel, 
the  one  a  septemvir,  and  the  other  the  consul  or 
burgomaster.  They  were  both  distinguished  by 
their  learning,  and  both  of  them,  particularly  Paul, 
were  ardent  lovers  of  astronomy.  Tycho  had 
hitherto  no  other  astronomical  instrument  than  the 
coarse  radius  which  was  made  for  him  by  Sculte- 
tus,  and  he  waited  only  for  a  proper  occasion  to 
have  a  larger  and  better  instrument  constructed  for 
his  use.  Having  now  the  command  of  workmen 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  125 

who  could  execute  his  plans,  he  conceived  the  bold 
design  of  making  a  divided  instrument  which  should 
distinctly  exhibit  single  minutes  of  a  degree.    While 
he  was  transferring  the  first  rude  conception  of  his 
instrument  to  paper,  Paul  Hainzel  entered  his  study, 
and  was  so  struck  with  the  grandeur  of  the  plan 
that  he  instantly  undertook  to  have  it  executed  at 
his  own  expense.     The  projected  instrument  was  a 
quadrant  of  fourteen  cubits  radius  !  and  Tycho  and 
his  friend  entered  upon  its  construction  with  that 
intense  ardour  which  is  ever  crowned  with  success. 
In  the  village  of  Gegginga,  about  half  a  mile  to 
the  south  of  the  city,  Paul  Hainzel  had  a  country 
house,  the  garden  of  which  was  chosen  as  the  spot 
where  the  quadrant  was  to  be  fixed.     The  best  art- 
ists  in  Augsburg,  clockmakers,  jewellers,  smiths, 
and  carpenters,  were  engaged  to  execute  the  work, 
and  from  the  zeal  which  so  novel  an  instrument  in- 
spired, the  quadrant  was  completed  in  less  than  a 
month.     Its  size  was ^  so  jrreaJL .that  twenty  men. 
could  with  difficulty  transport  it  to  its  place  of  fix- 
ture. .  The  two  principal  rectangular  radii  wer§ 
beams  of  oak ;  the  arch  which  lay  between  their 
extremities  was  made  of  solid  wood  of  a  particu- 
lar kind,  and  the  whole  was  bound  together  by 
twelve  beams.    It  received  additional  strength  from 
several  iron  bands,  and  the  arch  was  covered  with 
plates  of  brass,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the 
L2 


126  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

5400  divisions  into  which  it  was  to  be  subdivided. 
A  large  and  strong  pillar  of  oak,  shod  with  iron, 
was  driven  into  the  ground,  and  kept  in  its  place 
by  solid  mason- work.  To  this  pillar  the  quadrant 
was  fixed  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  steps  were  pre- 
pared to  elevate  the  observer  when  stars  of  a  low 
altitude  required  his  attention.  As  the  instrument 
could  not  be  conveniently  covered  with  a  roof,  it 
was  protected  from  the  weather  by  a  covering  made 
of  skins  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this  and  other  pre- 
cautions, it  was  broken  to  pieces  by  a  violent  storm, 
after  having  remained  uninjured  for  the  space  of 
five  years. 

As  this  quadrant  was  fitted  only  to  determine 
the  altitudes  of  the  celestial  bodies,  Tycho  con- 
structed a  large  sextant  for  the  purpose  of  measu- 
ring their  distances.  It  consisted  of  two  radii, 
which  opened  and  shut  round  a  centre,  and  which 
were  nearly  four  cubits  long,  and  also  of  two 
arches,  one  of  which  was  graduated,  while  the  oth. 
er  served  to  keep  the  radii  in  the  same  plane. 
After  the  radii  had  been  opened  or  shut  till  they 
nearly  comprehended  the  angle  between  the  stars 
to  be  observed,  the  adjustment  was  completed  by 
means  of  a  very  fine  tangent  screw.  With  this  in- 
strument Tycho  made  many  excellent  observations 
during  his  stay  at  Augsburg.  He  began  also  the 
construction  of  a  wooden  globe  about  six  feet  in 


TYCHO  BRAKE.  127 

diameter.  Its  outer  surface  was  turned  with  great 
accuracy  into  a  sphere,  and  kept  from  warping  by 
interior  bars  of  wood  supported  at  its  centre. 

After  receiving  a  visit  from  the  celebrated  Peter 
Ramus,  who  subsequently  fell  a  victim  at  the  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew,  Tycho  left  Augsburg, 
having  received  a  promise  from  his  friend  Hainzel 
that  he  would  communicate  to  him  the  observations 
made  with  his  large  quadrant,  and  with  the  sextant 
which  he  had  given  him  in  a  present.  He  paid  a 
visit  to  Philip  Appian  in  passing  through  Ingolstadt, 
and  returned  to  his  native  country  about  the  end  of 
1571. 

The  fame  which  he  had  acquired  as  an  astrono- 
mer procured  for  him  a  warmer  reception  than  that 
which  he  had  formerly  experienced.  The  king  in- 
vited him  to  court,  and  his  friends  and  admirers 
loaded  him  with  kindness.  His  uncle,  Steno  Bille, 
who  now  lived  at  the  ancient  convent  of  Herritz- 
vold,  and  who  had  always  taken  a  deep  interest  in 
the  scientific  character  of  his  nephew,  not  only  in- 
vited him  to  his  house,  but  assigned  to  him  for  an 
observatory  the  part  of  it  which  was  best  adapted 
for  that  purpose.*  Tycho  cheerfully  accepted  of 
this  liberal  offer.  The  immediate  proximity  of 
Herritzvold  to  Knudstorp  rendered  this  arrange- 
ment peculiarly  convenient,  and  in  the  house  of  his 
uncle  he  experienced  all  that  kindness  and  consid- 


128  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

eration  which  natural  affection  and  a  love  of  sci- 
ence combined  to  cherish.  When  Steno  learned 
that  the  study  of  chymistry  was  one  of  the  pursuits 
of  his  nephew,  he  granted  him  a  spacious  house,  a 
Jew  yards  distant  from  the  convent,  for  his  labora- 
tory. Tycho  lost  no  time  in  fitting  up  his  observ- 
atory and  in  providing  his  furnaces  ;  and  regard- 
ing gold  and  silver  and  the  other  metals  as  the  stars 
of  the  earth,  he  used  to  represent  his  two  opposite 
pursuits  as  forming  only  one  science,  namely,  ce- 
lestial and  terrestrial  astronomy. 

In  the  hopes  of  enriching  himself  by  the  pursuits 
of  alchymy,  Tycho  devoted  most  of  his  attention  to 
those  satellites  of  gold  and  silver  which  now  con- 
stituted his  own  system,  and  which  disturbed  by 
their  powerful  action  the  hitherto  uniform  move- 
ments of  their  primary.  His  affections  were  ever 
turning  to  Germany,  where  astronomers  of  kindred 
views,  and  artists  of  surpassing  talent,  were  to  be 
found  in  almost  every  city.  The  want  of  money 
alone  prevented  him  from  realizing  his  wishes ;  and 
it  was  in  the  hope  of  attaining  the  means  of  trav- 
elling that  he  in  a  great  measure  forsook  his  sex- 
tants for  his  crucibles.  In  order,  however,  that  he 
might  have  one  good  instrument  in  his  observatory, 
he  constructed  a  sextant  similar  to,  but  somewhat 
larger  than,  that  which  he  had  presented  to  Hain- 
zel.  Its  limb  was  made  of  solid  brass,  and  was  ex- 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  129 

quisitely  divided  into  single  minutes  of  a  degree. 
Its  radii  were  strengthened  with  plates  of  brass, 
and  the  apparatus  for  shutting  and  opening  them 
was  made  with  great  accuracy. 

The  possession  of  this  instrument  was  peculiarly 
fortunate  for  Tycho,  for  an  event  now  occurred 
which  roused  him  from  his  golden  visions,  and  di- 
rected all  his  faculties  into  their  earlier  and  purer 
current.  On  the  llth  of  November,  1572,  wfopii 
he  was  returning  to  supper  from  his  laboratory,  the 
clearness  of  the  sky  inspired  him  with  the  desire  of 
completing  some  particular  observations.  On  look- 
ing up  to  the  starry  firmament  he  was  surprised  to 
see  an  extraordinary  light  in  the  constellation  of 
Cassiopeia,  which  was  then  above  his  head.  He 
felt  confident  that  he  had  never  before  observed 
such  a  star  in  that  constellation,  and  distrusting  the 
evidence  of  his  own  senses,  he  called  out  the  ser- 
vants and  the  peasants,  and  having  received  their 
testimony  that  it  was  a  huge  star  such  as  they  had 
never  seen  before,  he  was  satisfied  of  the  correct- 
ness of  his  own  vision.  Regarding  it  as  a  new  and 
unusual  phenomenon,  he  hastened  to  his  observa- 
tory, adjusted  his  sextant,  and  measured  its  distan- 
ces from  the  nearest  stars  in  Cassiopeia.  He  no- 
ted also  its  form,  its  magnitude,  its  light,  and  its 
colour,  and  he  waited  with  great  anxiety  for  the 
next  night,  that  he  might  determine  the  important 


130  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

point  whether  it  was  a  fixed  star,  or  a  body  within, 
or  near  to,  our  own  system. 

For  several  years  Tycho  had  been  in  the  prac- 
tice of  calculating,  at  the  beginning  of  each  year,  a 
s.ort  of  almanac  for  his  own  use,  and  in  this  he  in- 
serted all  the  observations  which  he  had  made  on 
the  new  star,  and  the  conclusions  which  he  had 
drawn  from  them.  JJaving  gone  to  Copenhagen  in 
the  course  of  the  .ensuing'  spring,  ho  showed  this 
manuscript  to  John  Pratensis,  a  professor,  in  whose 
house  he  was  always  hospitably  received.  Charles 
Danzeus,  the  French  ambassador,  and  a  person  of 
great  learning,  having  heard  of  Tycho's  arrival, 
invited  himself  to  dine  with  him  at  the  house  of 
Pratensis.  The  conversation  soon  turned  upon  the 
new  star,  and  Tycho  found  his  companion  very 
skeptical  about  its  existence.  Danzeus  was  par- 
ticularly jocular  on  the  subject,  and  attacked  the 
Danes  for  their  inattention  to  so  important  a  science, 
as  astronomy,,  Tycho  received  this  lecture  in  good 
temper,  and  with  the  anxious  expectation  that  a 
clear  sky  would  enable  him  to  give  a  practical  ref- 
utation of  the  attack  which  was  made  upon  his 
country,  The  night  turned  out  serene,  and  the 
whole  party  saw  with  astonishment  the  new  star 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances.  Praten- 
sis conceived  that  it  was  similar  to  the  one  observ- 
ed by  Hipparchus,  and  urged  Tycho  to  publish  the 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  131 

observations  which  he  had  made  upon  it.  Tycho 
refused  to  accede  to  this  request,  on  the  pretext 
that  his  work  was  not  sufficiently  perfect ;  but  the 
true  reason,  as  he  afterward  acknowledged,  was, 
that  he  considered  it  would  be  a  disgrace  for  a  no- 
bleman either  to  study  such  subjects  or  to  commu- 
nicate them  to  the  public.  This  absurd  notion  was 
with  some  difficulty  overcome,  and  through  the 
earnest  entreaties  arid  assistance  of  Pratensis,  his 
work  on  the  new  star  was  published  in  1573. 

This  remarkable  body  presents  to  us  one  of  the 
most  interesting  phenomena  in  astronomy.  The 
date  of  its  first  appearance  has  not  been  exactly  as- 
certained. Tycho  saw  it  on  the  llth  of  Novem. 
ber,  but  Cornelius  Gemma  had  seen  it  on  the  9th, 
Paul  Hainzel  saw  it  on  the  7th  of  August  at  Augs. 
burg,  and  Wolfgangus  Schulerus  observed  it  at 
Wittemberg  on  the  6th.  Tycho  conjectures  that 
it  was  first  seen  on  the  5th,  and  Hieronymus  Mu- 
nosius  asserts  that  at  Valentia,  in  Spain,  it  was  not 
seen  on  the  2d,  when  he  was  showing  that  part  of 
the  heavens  to  his  pupils.  This  singular  body  Con- 
tinued to  be  seen  during  16  months,  and  did  not 
disappear  till  March,  1574.  In  its  appearance  it 
was  exactly  like  a  star,  having  none  of  the  distinct- 
ive marks  of  a  comet.  It  twinkled  strongly,  and 
grew  larger  than  Lyra  or  Sinus,  or  any  other  fixed 
star.  It  seemed  to  be  somewhat  larger  than  Ju. 


132  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

piter  when  he  is  nearest  the  earth,  and  rivalled  Ve~ 
nus  in  her  greatest  brightness.  In  ihe  first  month 
of  its  appearance  it  was  less  than  Jupiter  ;  in  the 
second  it  equalled  him ;  in  the  third  it  surpassed 
him  in  splendour  ;  in  the  fourth  it  was  equal  to 
Sirius ;  in  the  fifth  to  Lyra  ;  in  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth to  stars  of  the  second  magnitude  ;  in  the  eighth, 
ninth,  and  tenth  to  stars  of  the  third  magnitude  ;  in 
the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  to  stars  of  the 
fourth  magnitude  ;  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
to  stars  of  the  fifth  magnitude ;  and  in  the  sixteenth 
month  to  stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  After  this 
it  became  so  small  that  it  at  last  disappeared.  Its 
colour  changed  also  with  its  size.  At  first  it  was 
white  and  bright ;  in  the  third  month  it  began  to 
become  yellowish ;  in  the  fifth  it  became  reddish 
like  Aldebaran  ;  and  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  it 
became  bluish  like  Saturn,  growing  afterward  dull- 
er and  duller.  Its  place  in  the  heavens  was  inva- 
riable. Its  longitude  was  in  the  6th  degree  and 
54th  minute  of  Taurus,  and  its  latitude  53°  45' 
nofth.  Its  right  ascension  was  0°  26f,  and  its 
declination  61°  46£'.  It  had  no  parallax,  and  was 
unquestionably  situated  in  the  region  of  the  fixed 
stars. 

After  Tycho  had  published  his  book,  he  proposed 
to  travel  into  Germany  and  Italy ;  but  he  was  seized 
with  a  fever,  and  he  had  no  sooner  recovered  from 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  133 

it  than  he  became  involved  in  a  love  affair,  which 
frustrated  all  his  schemes.  Although  Tycho  was 
afraid  of  casting  a  stain  upon  his  nobility  by  pub- 
lishing his  observations  on  the  new  star,  yet  he  did 
not  scruple  to  debase  his  lineage  by  marrying  a 
peasant-girl  of  the  village  of  Knudstorp.  This 
event  took  place  in  1573,  and  in  1574  his  wife  gave 
birth  to  his  daughter  Magdalene.  Tycho's  noble 
relations  were  deeply  offended  at  this  imprudent 
step  ;  and  so  far  did  the  mutual  animosity  extend, 
that  the  king  himself  was  obliged  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation. 

The  fame  of  our  author  as  an  astronomer  and 
mathematician  was  now  so  high,  that  several  young 
Danish  nobles  requested  him  to  deliver  a  course  of 
lectures  upon  these  interesting  subjects.  This  ap- 
plication  was  seconded  by  Pratensis,  Danzeus,  and 
all  his  best  friends,  but  their  solicitations  were  vain. 
The  king  at  last  made  the  request  in  a  way  which 
ensured  its  being  granted  ;  and  Tycho  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures,  in  which  he  apt  only  gave  a  full 
view  of  the  science  of  astronomy,Hbut  defended  and 
explained  all  the  reveries  of  astrology. 

Having  finished  his  lectures  and  arranged  his 
domestic  affairs,  he  set  out  on  his  projected  jour- 
ney about  the  beginning  of  thejspring  of  1575,  leav- 
ing behind  him  his  wife  and  daughter  till,  he  should 
fix  upon  a  place  of  permanent  residence.  The 
M 


134  TYCHO    BRAHE. 

first  town  which  he  visited  was  Hesse-CasseJ,  the 
residence  of  WTHiam^landgrave  of  Hesse,  wHose 
patronage  of  astrenrjiny  and  whose  skill  in  making 
celestial  observations  have  immortalized  his  name. 
Here  Tycho  spent  eight  or  ten  delightful  days,  du- 
ring which  the  two  astronomers  were  occupied  one 
half  of  the  day  in  scientific  conversation  and  the 
other  half  in  astronomical  observations  ;  and  he 
would  have  prolonged  a  visit  which  gave  him  so 
much  pleasure,  had  not  the  death  of  one  of  the 
landgrave's  daughters  interrupted  their  labours. 
Passing  through  Frankfort,  Tycho  went  into  Switz- 
erland ;  and,  after  visiting  many  cities  on  his  way, 
he  fixed  upon  Basle  as  a  place  of  residence,  not 
oply  from  Its  central  position,  but  fronq-thfe  ^salu- 
brity  of  the  air  and  the  cheapness  of  living.  From 
Switzerland  he  went  to  Venice,  and,  in  returning 
through  Germany,  he  came  to  Ratisbon  at  the  time 
of  the  Congress,  which  had  been  called  together  on 
the  1st  of  November  for  the  coronation  of  the  Em- 
peror  Rudolph.  On  this  occasion  he  met  with  sev- 
eral distinguished  individuals,  who  were  not  only 
skilled  in  astronomy,  but  who  were  among  its 
warmest  patrons.  From  Ratisbon  he  passed  to 
SaalfeW,  and  thence  to  Wittemburg,  where  he  saw 
the  parallactic  instruments  and  the  wooden  quad- 
rant  which  had  been  used  by  John  Pratensis  in 


TYCHO    BRAHC.  135 

determining  the  latitude  of  the  city  and  in  meas- 
uring the  altitudes  of  the  new  star. 

Tycho  was  now  impatient  for  home,  and  he  lost 
no  time  in  returning  to  Denmark,  where  events 
were  awaiting  him  which  frustrated  all  his  schemes, 
by  placing  him  in  the  most  favourable  situation  for 
promoting  his  own  happiness  and  advancing  the 
interests  of  astronomy. 


136  TYCHO    BRAHE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Frederic  II.  patronises  Tycho,  and  resolves  to  establish  him 
in  Denmark. — Grants  him  the  Island  of  Huen  for  Life,  and 
Builds  the  splendid  Observatory  of  Uraniburg. — Descrip- 
tion of  the  Island  and  of  the  Observatory. — Account  of  its 
Astronomical  Instruments. — Tycho  begins  his  Observa- 
tions.— His  Pupils. — Tycho  is  made  Canon  of  Rothschild, 
and  receives  a  large  Pension. — His  Hospitality  to  his  Vis- 
iters. — Ingratitude  of  Witichius. — Tycho  sends  an  Assist- 
ant to  take  the  Latitude  of  Frauenburg  and  Konigsberg. — 
Is  visited  by  Ulric,  duke  of  Mecklenburg. — Change  in  Ty- 
cho's  Fortunes. 

THE  patronage  which  had  been  extended  to  as- 
tronomers by  several  of  the  reigning  princes  of 
Germany,  especially  by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  had  begun  to 
excite  a  love  of  science  in  the  minds  of  other  sov- 
ereigns. The  King  of  Denmark  seems  to  have 
felt  it  as  a  stain  upon  his  character  that  the  only 
astronomer  in  his  dominions  should  carry  on  his 
observations  in  distant  kingdoms,  and  adorn  by  his 
.discoveries  other  courts, than  his  own.  With  this 
feeling  he  sent  ambassadors  to  Hesse-Cassel  to  in- 
quire after  Tycho,  and  to  intimate  to  him  his  wish 
that  he  should  return  to  Denmark,  and  his  anxiety 


TYCHO    BRAHE.  137 

to  promote  the  advancement  of  astronomy  in  his 
own  dominions.  Tycho  had  left  Cassel  when  these 
messengers  arrived,  and  had  heard  nothing  of  the 
king's  intentions  till  he  was  about  to  quit  Knudstorp 
with  his  family  for  Basle.  At  this  time  he  was 
surprised  at  the  arrival  of  a  noble  messenger,  who 
brought  a  letter  requesting  him  to  meet  the  king  as 
soon  as  possible  at  Copenhagen.  Tycho  lost  no 
time  in  obeying  the  royal  summons.  The  king  re- 
ceived him  with  the  most  flattering  kindness.  He 
offered  to  give  him  a  grant  for  life  of  the  island  of 
Huen,  between  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  to  con- 
struct and  furnish  with  instruments,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, an  observatory,  as  well  as  a  house  for  the 
accommodation  of  his  family,  together  with  a  lab- 
oratory for  carrying  on  his  chymical  inquiries. 
Tycho,  who  truly  loved  his  country,  was  deeply  af. 
fected  with  the  munificence  of  the  royal  offer.  He 
accepted  of  it  with  that  warmth  of  gratitude  which 
it  was  calculated  to  inspire  ;  and  he  particularly 
rejoiced  in  the  thought  that  if  any  success  should 
attend  his  future  labours,  the  glory  of  it  would  be- 
long to  his  native  land. 

The  island  of  Huen  is  about  six  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Zealand,  three  from  that  of  Sweeden,  and 
fourteen  from  Copenhagen.  It  is  six  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  rises  into  the  form  of  a  mountain, 
which,  though  very  high,  terminates  in  a  plain.  It 
M2 


138  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

is  nowhere  rocky,  and  even  in  the  time  of  Tycho  it 
produced  the  best  kinds  of  grain,  afforded  excel- 
lent pasturage  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and 
possessed  deer,  hares,  rabbits,  and  partridges  in 
abundance.  It  contained  at  that  time  only  one  vil- 
lage, with  about  forty  inhabitants. 

Having  surveyed  his  new  territory,  Tycho  re- 
solved to  build  a  magnificent  tower  in  the  centre 
of  the  elevated  plain,  which  he  resolved  to  call 
Uraniburg,  or  The  City  of  the  Heavens.  Having 
made  the  necessary  arrangements,  he  repaired  to 
the  island  on  the  8th  of  August,  and  his  friend 
Charles  Danzeus  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  the 
new  observatory,  which  consisted  of  a  slab  of  por- 
phyry, with  the  following  inscription  : 


REGNANTE  IN  DANIA  FREDERICO  II.,  CAROLUS 
AQUITANUS  R.  G.  I.  D.  L.,*  DOMUI  HUIC  PHILOSOPHISE,  IM- 
PRIMISQUE  ASTRORUM  CONTEMPLATIONI,  REGIS  DECRETO  A 
NOBILI  TIRO  TYCHONE  BRAKE  DE  KNUDSTRUP  EXTRUCT^S: 
TOTIVUM  HUNC  LAPIDEM  MEMORISE  ET  FELICIS  AUSPICII  ERGO 
P.  ANNO  CIO.IO.LXXVI.  VI.  ID.  AUGUSTI. 

This  ceremony  was  performed  early  in  the 
morning  of  a  splendid  day,  in  which  the  rising  sun 
threw  its  blessing  upon^  Frederic?  and  upon  the 
party  of  noblemen  and  philosophers  who  had  as- 
sembled  to  testify  their  love  of  science.  An  en- 
tertainment was  provided  for  the  occasion,  and  co- 
*  Regis  Gallorum  in  Dania  Legatus. 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  139 

pious  libations  of  a  variety  of  wines  were  offered 
for  the  success  of  the  undertaking. 

The  observatory  was  surrounded  by  a  rampart,  v 
each  face  of  which  was  three  hundred  feet  long.    \ 
About  the  middle  of  each  face  the  rampart  became        • 
a  semicircle,  the   inner   diameter   of  which   was 
ninety  feet.     The  height  of  the  rampart  was  twen-      / 
ty-two  feet,  and  its  thickness  at  the  base  twenty. 
Its  four  angles  corresponded  exactly  with  the  four       > 
cardinal  points,  and  at  the  north  and  south  angles     \ 
were  erected  turrets,  of  which  one  was  a  printing- 
house,  and  the  other  the  residence  of  the  servants. 
Gates  were  erected  at  the  east  and  west  angles, 
and  above  them  were  apartments  for  the  reception 
of  strangers.     Within  the  rampart  was  a  shrub- 
bery,  with  about  three  hundred  varieties  of  trees, 
and  at  the  centre  of  each  semicircular  part  of  the 
rampart  was   a   bower  or  summer-house.     The 
shrubbery   surrounded   the   flower-garden,  which 
was  terminated  within  by  a  circular  wall  of  about 
forty-five  feet  high,  which  enclosed  a  more  elevated 
area,  in  the  centre  of  which  stood  the  principal 
building  in  the  observatory,  and  from  which  four 
paths  led  to  the  above-mentioned  angles,  with  as 
many  doors  for  entering  the  garden. 

The  principal  building  was  about  sixty  feet 
square.  The  doors  were  placed  on  the  east  and 
west  sides  ;  and  to  the  north  and  south  fronts  were 


HO  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

attached  two  round  towers,  whose  inner  diameter 
was  about  thirty-two  feet,  and  which  formed  the 
observatories,  which  had  windows  in  their  roof  that 
could  be  opened  towards  any  part  of  the  heavens. 
The  accommodations  for  the  family  were  numer- 
ous and  splendid.  Under  the  observatory,  in  the 
south  tower,  were  the  museum  and  library,  and  be- 
low this  again  was  a  laboratory  in  a  subterraneous 
crypt,  containing  sixteen  furnaces  of  various  kinds. 
Beneath  this  was  a  well  forty  feet  deep,  from  which 
water  was  distributed  by  siphons  to  every  part  of 
the  building. 

Besides  the  principal  building  there  were  other 
two  situated  without  the  rampart,  one  to  the  north, 
containing  a  workshop  for  the  construction  of  as- 
tronomical  and  other  instruments,  and  the  other  to 
the  south,  which  was  occupied  as  a  sort  of  farm- 
house. These  buildings  cost  the  King  of  Den- 
mark 100,000  rix-dollars  (£20,000),  and  Tycho  is 
said  to  have  expended  upon  them  a  similar  sum. 

£&  .the  two  towers  could  not  accommodate  the 
instruments  which  Tycho  required  for  his  observa- 
tions, he  found  it  necessary  to  erect,  on  the  hill 
about  sixty  paces  to  the  south  of  Uraniburg,  a  sub- 
terranean observatory,  in  which  he  might  place  his 
larger  instruments,  which  required  to  be  firmly 
fixed,  and  to  be  protected  from  the  wind  and  the 
weather.  This  observatory,  which  he  called  Stiern- 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  141 

berg,  or  the  mountain  of  the  stars,  consisted  of 
several  crypts,  separated  by  solid  walls,  and  to. 
these  there  was  »~  subterranean  passage  from  the 
laboratory  in  Uraniburg.  The  various  buildings 
which  TycKo  erected  were  built  in  a  regular  style 
of  architecture,  and  were  highly  ornamented,  not 
only  with  external  decorations,  but  with  the  statues 
and  pictures  of  the  most  distinguished  astronomers, 
from  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  down  to  Copernicus, 
and  with  inscriptions  and  poems  in  honour  of  as- 
tronomers. 

While  these  buildings  were  erecting,  and  after 
their  completion,  Tycho  was  busily  occupied  in  pre- 
paring instruments  for  observation.  These  were 
of  the  most  splendid  description,  and  the  reader 
will  form  some  notion  of  their  grandeur  and  their 
expense  from  the  following  list : 

In  the  south  and  greater  Observatory. 

1.  A  semicircle  of  solid  iron,  covered  with  brass,  four  cubits 
radius. 

2.  A  sextant  of  the  same  materials  and  size. 

3.  A  quadrant  of  one  and  a  half  cubits  radius,  and  an  azi- 
muth circle  of  three  cubits. 

4.  Ptolemy's  parallactic   rules,  covered  with  brass,  four 
cubits  in  the  side. 

5.  The  sextant  already  described  in  page  126. 

6.  Another  quadrant,  like  No.  3. 

7.  Zodiacal  armillaries  of  melted  brass,  and  turned  out  of 
the  solid,  of  three  cubits  in  diameter. 


142  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

Near  this  observatory  was  a  large  clock,  with  one  wheel 
two  cubits  in  diameter,  and  two  smaller  ones,  which,  like  it, 
indicated  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds. 

In  the  south  and  lesser  Observatory. 

8.  An  armillary  sphere  of  brass,  with  a  steel  meridian,  whose 
diameter  was  about  4  cubits. 

In  the  north  Observatory. 

9.  Brass  parallactic  rules,  which  revolved  in  azimuth  above 
a  brass  horizon,  twelve  feet  in  diameter. 

10.  A  half  sextant,  of  four  cubits  radius. 

11.  A  steel  sextant. 

12.  Another  half  sextant,  with  steel  limb,  four  cubits  ra- 
dius. 

13.  The  parallactic  rules  of  Copernicus. 

14.  Equatorial  armillaries. 

15.  A  quadrant  of  a  solid  plate  of  brass,  five  cubits  in  radius, 
showing  every  ten  seconds. 

16.  In  the  museum  was  the  large  globe  made  at  Augsburg : 
see  p.  126. 

In  the  Stiern-berg  Observatory. 

17.  In  the  central  part,  a  large  semicircle,  with  a  brass  limb, 
and  three  clocks,  showing  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds. 

18.  Equatorial  armillaries  of  seven  cubits,  with  semi-armil- 
laries  of  nine  cubits. 

19.  A  sextant  of  four  cubits  radius. 

20.  A  geometrical  square  of  iron,  with  an  intercepted  quad- 
rant of  five  cubits,  and  divided  into  fifteen  seconds. 

21.  A  quadrant  of  four  cubits  radius,  showing  ten  seconds, 
with  an  azimuth  circle. 

22.  Zodiacal  armillaries  of  brass,  with  steel  meridians,  three 
cubits  in  diameter. 

23.  A  sextant  of  brass,  kept  together  by  screws,  and  capa- 


TYCHO    BRAHE.  143 

ble  of  being  taken  to  pieces  for  travelling  with.    Its  radius 
was  four  cubits. 

24.  A  movable  armillary  sphere,  three  cubits  in  diameter. 

25.  A  quadrant  of  solid  brass,  one  cubit  radius,  and  divided 
into  minutes  by  Nonian  circles. 

26.  An  astronomical  radius  of  solid  brass,  three  cubits  long. 

27.  An  astronomical  ring  of  brass,  a  cubit  in  diameter. 

28.  A  small  brass  astrolabe. 

In  almost  all  the  instruments  now  enumerated, 
the  limb  was  subdivided  by  diagonal  lines,  a  meth- 
od which  Tycho  first  brought  into  use,  but  which, 
in  modern  times,  has  been  superseded  by  the  in- 
ventions  of  Nonius  and  Vernier. 

When  Tycho  had  thus  furnished  his  observatory, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  examination  of  the  stars  ; 
and  during  the  twenty-one  years  which  he  spent  in 
this  delightful  occupation,  he  made  vast  additions 
to  astronomical  science.  In  order  to  instruct  the 
young  in  the  art  of  observation,  and  educate  assist- 
ants for  his  observatory,  he  had  sometimes  under 
his  roof  from  six  to  twelve  pupils,  whom  he  board- 
ed and  educated.  Some  of  these  were  named  by 
the  king,  and  educated  at  his  expense.  Others 
were  sent  by  different  academies  and  cities ;  and 
several,  who  had  presented  themselves  of  their  own 
accord,  were  liberally  admitted  by  the  generous 
astronomer. 

As  Tycho  had  spent  nearly  a  ton  of  gold  (about 
100,000  dollars)  in  his  outlay  at  Uraniburg,  his  own 


144  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

income  was  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits.  To 
supply  this  defect,  Frederic  gave  him  an  annual 
pension  of  2000  dollars,  besides  an  estate  in  Nor- 
way,  and  made  him  canon  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
of  Rothschild,  or  prebend  of  St.  Laurence,*  which 
had  an  annual  income  of  1000  dollars,  and  which 
was  burdened  only  with  the  expense  of  keeping  up 
the  chapel  containing  the  Mausolea  of  the  Kings  of 
the  family  of  Oldenburg. 

It  would  be  an  unprofitable  task,  and  one  by  no 
means  interesting  to  the  general  reader,  to  give  a 
detailed  history  of  the  various  astronomical  obser- 
vations and  discoveries  which  were  made  by  Tycho 
during  the  twenty  years  that  he  spent  at  Uraniburg. 
Every  phenomenon  that  appeared  in  the  heavens 
he  observed  with  the  greatest  care,  while  he  at  the 
same  time  carried  on  regular  series  of  observations 
for  determining  the  places  of  the  fixed  stars,  and 
for  improving  the  tables  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  plan- 
ets. Though  almost  wholly  devoted  to  these  noble 
pursuits,  yet  he  kept  an  open  house,  and  received 
with  unbounded  hospitality  the  crowds  of  philoso- 
phers, nobles,  and  princes  who  came  to  be  intro- 
duced  to  the  first  astronomer  of  the  age,  and  to 
admire  the  splendid  temple  which  the  Danish  sov- 
ereign had  consecrated  to  science. 

*  This  office  had  been  usually  conferred  on  the  king's  chan- 
cellor. 


TYCHO   BRAHB.  145 

Among  the  strangers  whom  he  received  under 
his  roof,  there  were  some  who  returned  his  kind- 
ness  with  ingratitude.  Among  these  was  Paul  Wi- 
tichius,  a  mathematician,  who,  under  the  pretence 
of  devoting  his  whole  life  to. astronomy,  insinuated 
himself  into  the  utmost  familiarity  with  Tycho. 
The  unsuspecting  astronomer  explained  to  his  guest 
all  his  inventions,  described  all  his  methods,  and 
even  made  hfcn  acquainted  with  those  views  which 
he  had  not  realized,  and  with  instruments  which  he 
had  not  yet  executed.  When  Witichius  had  thus 
obtained  possession  of  the  methods,  and  inventions, 
and  views  of  Tycho,  and  had  enjoyed  his  hospital, 
ity  for  three  months,  he  pretended  that  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Germany  to  receive  an  inher- 
itance to  which  he  had  succeeded.  After  quitting 
Uraniburg,  this  ungrateful  mathematician  neither 
returned  to  see  Tycho,  nor  kept  up  any  correspond, 
ence  with  him  ;  and  it  was  not  till  five  years  after 
his  departure  that  Tycho  learned,  from  the  letters 
of  the  Prince  of  Hesse  to  Ranzau,  that  Witichius 
had  passed  through  Hesse,  and  had  described  as 
his  own  the  various  inventions  and  methods  which 
had  been  shown  to  him  in  Huen. 

Being  unable  to  reconcile  his  own  observations 
with  those  of  Copernicus  and  with  the  Prutenic 
Tables,  Tycho  resolved  to  obtain  new  determina- 
tions of  the  latitude  of  Frauenburg,  in  Prussia, 
N 


146  TYCHO    BRAHE. 

where  Copernicus  made  his  observations,  and  of 
Konigsberg,  to  the  meridian  of  which  Hheinhold 
had  adapted  hid  Prutenic  Tables.  For  these  pur- 
poses he  sent  one  of  his  assistants,  Elias  Morsianus, 
with  a  proper  instrument,  under  the  protection  of 
Bylovius,  ambassador  of  the  Margrave  of  Anspach, 
to  the  King  of  Denmark,  who  was  returning  by  sea 
to  Germany ;  and,  after  receiving  the  greatest  at- 
tention and  assistance  from  the  n6%le  canons  of 
Ermeland,  he  determined,  from  nearly  a  month's 
observations  on  the  sun  and  stars,  that  the  latitude 
of  Frauenburg  was  54°  22£',  in  place  of  54°  19£', 
as  given  by  Copernicus.  In  like  manner  he  de- 
termined that  the  latitude  of  Konigsberg  was  54° 
43'  in  place  of  54°  17',  as  adopted  by  Rheinhold. 
When  Morsianus  returned  to  Huen  in  July,  he 
brought  with  him,  as  a  present  to  Tycho,  from  John 
Hannovius,  one  of  the  canons  of  Ermeland,  the 
Ptolemaic  Rules,  or  the  parallactic  instrument 
which  Copernicus  had  used  and  made  with  his  own 
hands.  It  consisted  of  two  equal  wooden  rules,  five 
cubits  long,  and  divided  into  1414  parts.  Tycho 
preserved  this  gift  as  one  peculiarly  dear  to  him, 
and  on  the  day  of  his  receiving  it  he  composed  a 
set  of  verses  in  honour  of  the  great  astronomer  to 
whom  it  belonged. 

Among  the  distinguished  visits  which  were  paid 
to  Tycho,  we  must  enumerate  that  of  Ulric,  duke 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  147 

of  Mecklenburg,  in  1586.  Although  his  daughter 
Sophia,  queen  of  Denmark,  had  already  paid  two 
visits  to  Uraniburg  in  the  same  year,  yet  such  was 
her  love  of  astronomy  that  she  accompanied  her 
father  and  his  wife  Elizabeth  on  this  occasion.  Ul- 
ric  was  not  only  fond  of  science  in  general,  but  had 
for  many  years  devoted  himself  to  chymical  pur- 
suits, and  he  was  therefore  peculiarly  gratified  in 
examining  the  splendid  laboratory  and  extensive 
apparatus  which  Tycho  possessed.  It  has  been 
said  by  some  of  the  biographers  of  Tycho,  that  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  visited  Uraniburg  about  this 
period ;  but  this  opinion  is  not  correct,  as  it  was 
only  his  astronomer  and  optician,  Rothman,  who 
made  a  journey  to  Huen  in  1591  for  the  recovery 
of  his  health.  Tycho  had  long  carried  on  a  corre- 
spondence with  this  able  astronomer  respecting  the 
observations  made  at  the  observatory  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  during  the  few  months  which  they  now 
spent  together  they  discussed  in  the  amplest  man- 
ner all  the  questions  which  had  previously  been  agi- 
tated. Rothman  was  astonished  at  the  wonderful 
apparatus  which  he  saw  at  Uraniburg,  and  return- 
ed to  his  native  country  charmed  with  the  hospital- 
ity of  the  Danish  astronomer. 

Hitherto  we  have  followed  Tycho  through  a  ca- 
reer of  almost  unexampled  prosperity.  When  he 
had  scarcely  reached  his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  es- 


148 


TYCHO    BRAKE. 


tablished,  by  the  kindness  and  liberality  of  his  sov- 
ereign, in  the  most  splendid  observatory  that  had 
ever  been  erected  in  Europe  ;  and  a  thriving  fam- 
ily, an  ample  income,  and  a  widely-extended  repu- 
tation were  added  to  his  blessings.  Of  the  value 
of  these  gifts  he  was  deeply  sensible,  and  he  en. 
joyed  them  the  more  that  he  received  them  with  a 
grateful  heart.  Tycho  was  a  Christian  as  well  as 
a  philosopher.  The  powers  of  his  gifted  mind  have 
been  amply  displayed  in  his  astronomical  labours ; 
but  we  shall  now  have  occasion  to  witness  his  piety 
and  resignation  in  submitting  to  an  unexpected  and 
an  adverse  destiny. 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  149 


CHAPTER  III. 

Tycho's  Labours  do  Honour  to  his  Country. — Death  of  Fred- 
eric II. — James  VI.  of  Scotland  visits  Tycho  at  Uraniburg. 
— Christian  IV.  visits  Tycho. — The  Duke  of  Brunswick's 
Visit  to  Tycho. — The  Danish  Nobility,  jealous  of  his  Fame, 
conspire  against  him. — He  is  compelled  to  quit  Uraniburg, 
and  to  abandon  his  Studies. — Cruelty  of  the  Minister  Wal- 
chendorp. — Tycho  quits  Denmark  with  his  Family  and  In- 
struments.— Is  hospitably  received  by  Count  Rantzau,who 
introduces  him  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph. — The  Emperor 
invites  him  to  Prague. — He  gives  him  a  Pension  of  3000 
Crowns,  and  the  Castle  of  Benach  as  a  Residence  and  an 
Observatory. — Kepler  visits  Tycho,  who  obtains  for  him  the 
Appointment  of  Mathematician  to  Rudolph. 

THE  love  of  astronomy  which  had  been  so  une- 
quivocally exhibited  by  Frederic  II.  and  his  royal 
consort,  inspired  their  courtiers  with  at  least  an 
outward  respect  for  science,  and  among  the  min- 
isters and  advisers  of  the  king  Tycho  reckoned 
many  ardent  friends.  It  was  everywhere  felt  that 
Denmark  had  elevated  herself  among  the  nations 
of  Europe  by  her  liberality  to  Tycho,  and  the 
peaceful  glory  which  he  had  in  return  conferred 
upon  his  country  was  not  of  a  kind  to  dissatisfy 
even  rival  nations.  In  the  conquests  of  science  no 
N2 


150  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

widow's  or  orphan's  tears  are  shed,  no  captives 
are  dragged  from  their  homes,  and  no  devoted  vic- 
tims are  yoked  to  the  chariot-wheels  of  the  triumph- 
ant philosopher.  The  newly-acquired  domains  of 
knowledge  belong,  in  right  of  conquest,  to  all  na- 
tions, and  Denmark  had  now  earned  the  gratitude 
of  Europe  by  the  magnitude  as  well  as  the  success 
of  her  contingent. 

An  event,  however,  now  occurred  which  threat- 
ened with  destruction  the  interests  of  Danish  sci- 
ence. v^In  the  beginninfi  Of 
II,  didd,  in  the  64tfi  year  of  his  age  and  the  29th 
of  his  reign.  His  remains  were  Conveyed  to 
Rothschild,  and  deposited  in  the  chapel  under  Ty- 
cho's  care,  where  a  finely-executed  bust  of  him 
was  afterward  placed.  His  son  and  successor, 
Christian  IV.,  was  only  in  the  llth  year  of  his 
age,  and  though  his  temper  and  disposition  were 
good,  yet  Tycho  had  reason  to  be  alarmed  at  the 
possibility  of  his  discontinuing  the  patronage  of 
astronomy.  The  taste  for  science,  however,  which 
had  sprung  up  in  the  Danish  court,  had  extended 
itself  no  wider  than  the  influence  of  the  reigning 
sovereign.  The  parasites  of  royalty  saw  them- 
selves eclipsed  in  the  bright  renown  which  Tycho 
had  acquired,  and  every  new  visit  to  Uraniburg  by 
a  foreign  prince  supplied  fresh  fuel  to  the  rancour 
which  had  long  been  smothering  in  their  breasts. 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  151 

The  accession  of  a  youthful  king  held  out  to  his 
enemies  an  opportunity  of  destroying  the  influence 
of  Tycho  ;  and  though  no  adverse  step  was  taken, 
yet  he  had  the  sagacity  to  foresee,  in  "  trifles  light 
as  air,"  the  approaching  confirmation  of  his  fears. 
Hope,  however,  still  cheered  him  amid  his  labours ; 
but  that  hope  was  founded  chiefly  on  the  learning 
and  character  of  Nicolas  Caasius,  the  chancellor 
of  the  kingdom,  from  whom  he  had  experienced 
the  warmest  attentions. 

Among  the  princes  who  visited  Uraniburg,  there 
were  none  who  conducted  themselves  with  more 
condescension  and  generosity  than  our  own  sov- 
ereign, James  VI.  In  the  year  1590,  when  the 
Scottish  king  repaired  to  Denmark  to  celebrate  his 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Anne,  the  king's  sister, 
he  paid  a  visit  to  Tycho,  attended  by  his  council- 
lors and  a  large  suite  of  nobility.  During  the 
eight  days  which  he  spent  at  Uraniburg,  James 
carried  on  long  discussions  with  Tycho  on  various 
subjects,  but  chiefly  on  the  motion  which  Coper- 
nicus had  ascribed  to  the  earth.  He  examined 
narrowly  all  the  astronomical  instruments,  and 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  principles  of 
their  construction  and  the  method  of  using  them. 
He  inspected  the  busts  and  pictures  in  the  museum, 
and  when  he  perceived  the  portrait  of  George  Bu- 
chanan, his  own  preceptor,  he  could  not  refrain 


152  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

from  the  strongest  expressions  of  delight.  Upon 
quitting  the  hospitable  roof  of  Tycho,  James  not 
only  presented  him  with  a  magnificent  donation, 
but  afterward  gave  him  his  royal  license  to  pub- 
lish  his  works  in  England  during  seventy  years. 
This  license  was  accompanied  with  the  following 
high  eulogium  on  his  abilities  and  learning :  "  Nor 
have  I  become  acquainted  with  these  things  only 
from  the  relation  of  others,  or  from  a  bare  in- 
spection of  your  works,  but  I  have  seen  them  be- 
fore my  own  eyes,  and  have  heard  them  with  my 
own  ears,  in  your  residence  at  Uraniburg,  and  have 
drawn  them  from  the  various  learned  and  agreea- 
ble conversations  which  I  there  held  with  you,  and 
which  even  now  affect  my  mind  to  such  a  degree 
that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  I  recollect 
them  with  greater  pleasure  or  admiration ;  as  I 
now  willingly  testify,  by  this  license,  to  present  and 
to  future  generations,"  &c. 

At  the  request  of  Tycho,  the  king  also  compo- 
sed and  wrote  in  his  own  hand  some  Latin  verses, 
which  were  more  complimentary  than  classical. 
His  chancellor  had  also  composed  some  verses  of 
a  similar  character  during  his  visit  to  Tycho.  A 
short  specimen  of  these  will  be  deemed  sufficient 
by  the  classical  reader  : 

"  Vidit  et  obstupuit  Rex  Huennum  Scoticus  almam  ; 
Miratus  clari  tot  monumenta  viri." 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  153 

In  the  year  1591,  when  Christian  IV.  had  reach- 
ed  his  14th  year,  he  expressed  a  desire  to  pay  a 
visit  to  Uraniburg.  He  accordingly  set  out  with 
a  large  party,  consisting  of  his  three  principal  sen- 
ators,  and  other  councillors  and  noblemen  ;  and 
having  examined  the  various  instruments  in  the  ob- 
servatories and  laboratory,  he  proposed  to  Tycho 
various  questions  on  mechanics  and  mathematics, 
but  particularly  on  the  principles  of  fortification 
and  ship-building.  Having  observed  that  he  par- 
ticularly admired  a  brass  globe,  which,  by  means 
of  internal  wheelwork,  imitated  the  diurnal  motion 
of  the  heavens,  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun, 
and  the  phases  of  the  moon,  Tycho  made  him  a 
present  of  it,  and  received  in  return  an  elegant 
gold  chain,  with  his  majesty's  picture,  with  an  as- 
surance of  his  unalterable  attachment  and  protec- 
tion. 

Notwithstanding  this  assurance,  Tycho  had  al- 
ready, as  we  have  stated,  begun  to  suspect  the  de- 
signs of  his  enemies  ;  and  in  a  letter  addressed  to 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  early  in  1591,  he  throws 
out  some  hints  which  indicated  the  anxieties  that 
agitated  his  mind.  The  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  as 
if  he  had  heard  some  rumours  unfavourable  to  the 
prospects  of  Tycho,  requested  him  to  write  him 
respecting  the  state  of  the  kingdom  and  concerning 
his  own  private  affairs.  To  this  letter,  which  was 


154  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

dated  early  in  February,  Tycho  replied  about  the 
beginning  of  April.  He  informed  the  landgrave 
that  he  led  a  private  life  in  his  own  island,  exempt 
from  all  official  functions,  and  never  willingly  ta- 
king a  part  in  public  affairs.  He  was  desirous  of 
leaving  the  ambition  of  public  honours  to  others, 
and  of  devoting  himself  wholly  to  the  study  of  phi- 
losophy and  astronomy  ;  and  he  expressed  a  hope 
that,  if  he  should  be  involved  in  the  tumults  and 
troubles  of  life  either  by  his  own  destiny  or  by 
evil  counsels,  he  might  be  able,  by  the  blessing  of 
God,  to  extricate  himself  by  the  force  of  his  mind 
and  the  integrity  of  his  life.  He  comforted  him- 
self  with  the  idea  that  every  soil  was  the  country 
of  a  great  man,  and  that,  wherever  he  went,  the  blue 
sky  would  still  be  over  his  head  ;*  and  he  distinctly 
states  at  the  close  of  his  letter  that  he  had  thought 
of  transferring  his  residence  to  some  other  place, 
as  there  were  some  of  the  king's  councillors  who 
had  already  begun  to  calumniate  his  studies,  and  to 
grudge  him  his  pension  from  the  treasury. 

The  causes  which  led  to  this  change  of  feeling 
on  the  part  of  Christian  IV.'s  advisers  have  not 
been  explained  by  the  biographers  of  Tycho.  It 
has  been  stated,  in  general  terms,  that  he  had  made 
many  enemies  by  the  keenness  of  his  temper  and 
the  severity  of  his  satire ;  but  I  have  not  been  able 

*  Omne  solum  forti  patria,  et  coelum  undique  supra  est. 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  155 

to  discover  any  distinct  examples  of  these  peculiar- 
ities of  his  mind.  In  an  event,  indeed,  which  oc- 
curred about  this  time,  he  slightly  resented  a  piece 
of  marked  incivility  on  the  part  of  Henry  Julius, 
duke  of  Brunswick,  who  had  married  the  Princess 
Eliza  of  Denmark  ;  but  it  is  not  likely  that  so  triv- 
ial  an  aifair,  if  it  were  known  at  court,  could  have 
called  down  upon  him  the  hostility  of  the  king's 
advisers. 

The  Duke  of  Brunswick  had  in  1590  paid  a  vis- 
it to  Uraniburg,  and  had  particularly  admired  an 
antique  brass  statue  of  Mercury,  about  a  cubit  long, 
which  Tycho  had  placed  in  the  roof  of  the  hypo- 
caust  or  central  crypt  of  the  Stiern-berg  observato- 
ry.  By  means  of  a  concealed  mechanism,  it  moved 
round  in  a  circular  orbit.  The  duke  requested  the 
statue  and  its  machinery,  which  Tycho  gave  him, 
on  the  condition  that  he  should  obtain  a  model  of 
it,  for  the  purpose  of  having  another  executed  by  a 
skilful  workman.  The  duke  not  only  forgot  his 
promise,  but  paid  no  attention  to  the  letters  which 
were  addressed  to  him.  Tycho  was  justly  irrita- 
ted at  this  unprincely  conduct,  and  ordered  this 
anecdote  to  be  inserted  in  the  description  of  Urani- 
burg which  he  was  now  preparing  for  publication. 

In  the  year  1592,  Tycho  lost  his  distinguished 
friend  and  correspondent  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  and 
astronomy  one  of  its  most  active  and  intelligent 


156  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

cultivators.  His  grief  on  this  occasion  was  deep 
and  sincere,  and  he  gave  utterance  to  his  feelings 
in  an  impassioned  elegy,  in  which  he  recorded  the 
virtues  and  talents  of  his  friend.  Prince  Maurice, 
the  son  and  successor  of  the  landgrave,  continued, 
with  the  assistance  of  able  observers,  to  keep  up 
the  reputation  of  the  observatory  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
and  the  observations  which  were  there  made  were 
afterward  published  by  Snellius.  The  extensive 
and  valuable  correspondence  between  Tycho  and 
the  landgrave  was  prepared  for  publication  about 
the  beginning  of  1593,  and  contains  also  the  letters 
of  Rothman  and  Rantzau. 

For  several  years  the  studies  of  Tycho  had  been 
treated  with  an  unwilling  toleration  by  the  Danish 
court.  Many  of  the  nobles  envied  the  munificent 
establishment  which  he  had  received  from  Frederic, 
and  the  liberal  pension  which  he  drew  from  his 
treasury.  But  among  his  most  active  enemies 
were  some  some  physicians,  who  envied  his  reputa- 
tion  as  a  successful  and  a  gratuitous  practitioner  of 
the  healing  art.  Numbers  of  invalids  flocked  jtp 
Huen,  and  diseases  which  resisted  all  other  meth- 
ods of  cure  are  said  to  have  yielded  to  the  pana- 
ceal  prescription  of  the  astrologer.  Under  the  in- 
fluence  of  such  motives,  these  individuals  succeed- 
ed in  exciting  against  Tycho  the  hostility  of  the 
court.  They  drew  the  public  attention  to  the  ex- 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  157 

hausted  state  of  the  treasury.  They  maintained 
that  he  had  possessed  too  long  the  estate  in  Nor- 
way, which  might  be  given  to  men  who  laboured 
more  usefully  for  the  commonwealth ;  and  they 
accused  him  of  allowing  the  chapel  at  Rothschild 
to  fall  into  decay.  The  president  of  the  council, 
Christopher  Walchendorp,  and  the  king's  chancel- 
lor, were  the  most  active  of  the  enemies  of  Tycho ; 
and,  having  poisoned  the  mind  of  their  sovereign 
against  the  most  meritorious  of  his  subjects,  Tycho 
was^de^yed  of  his  canonry,  his  estate  in  Norway, 
and  his  pension. 

Being  no  longer  able  to  bear  the  expenses  of  his 
establishment  in  Huen,  and  dreading  that  the  feel- 
ings which  had  been  excited  against  him  might  be 
still  farther  roused,  so  as  to  Deprive  him  of  the  Isl- 
and of  Huen  itself,  he  resolved  to  transfer  his  in- 
struments to  some  other  situation.  Notwithstand- 
ing this  resolution,  he  remained  with  his  family  in 
the  island,  and  continued  his  observations  till  the 
spring  of  1597,  when  he  took  a  house  in  Copenha- 
gen, and  removed  to  it  all  his  smaller  and  more 
portable  instruments,  leaving  those  which  were 
large  or  fixed  in  the  crypts  of  Stiern-berg.  His 
first  plan  was  to  remove  everything  from  Huen  as 
a  measure  of  security  ;  but  the  public  feeling  be- 
gan to  turn  in  his  favour,  and  there  were  many 
good  men  in  Copenhagen  who  did  not  scruple  to 


158  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

reprobate  the  conduct  of  the  government.  The 
president  of  the  council,  Walchendorp— a  name 
which,  while  the  heavens  revolve,  will  be  pronoun- 
ced with  horror  by  astronomers — saw  the  change 
of  sentiment  which  his  injustice  had  produced,  and 
adopted  an  artful  method  of  sheltering  himself  from 
public  odium.  In  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with 
Tycho,  the  recollection  of  which  had  rankled  in 
his  breast,  he  dreaded  to  be  the  prime  mover  in  his 
persecution.  He  therefore  appointed  a  committee 
of  two  persons,  one  of  whom  was  Thomas  Feu- 
chius,  to  report  to  the  government  on  the  nature 
and  utility  of  the  studies  of  Tycho.  These  two 
individuals  were  entirely  ignorant  of  astronomy  and 
the  use  of  instruments  ;  and  even  if  they  had  not, 
they  would  have  been  equally  subservient  to  the 
views  of  the  minister.  They  reported  that  the 
studies  of  Tycho  were  of  no  value,  and  that  they 
were  not  only  useless,  but  noxious.  Armed  with 
this  report,  Walchendorp  prohibited  Tycho,  in  the 
king's  name,  from  continuing  his  chymical  experi- 
ments ;  and  instigated,  no  doubt,  by  this  wicked 
minister,  an  attack  was  made  upon  himself,  and  his 
shepherd  or  his  steward  was  injured  in  the  affray. 
Tycho  was  provoked  to  revenge  himself  upon  his 
enemies,  and  the  judge  was  commanded  not  to  in- 
terfere  in  the  matter. 

Thus  persecuted  by  his  enemies,  Tycho  resolved 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  159 

to  remain  no  longer  in  an  ungrateful  country.  He 
carried  from  Huen  everything  that  was  movable, 
and  having  packed  up  his  instruments,  his  crucibles, 
and  his  books,  he  hired  a  ship  to  convey  them  to 
some  foreign  land.  His  wife,  his  five  sons  and 
four  daughters,  his  male  and  his  female  servants, 
and  many  of  his  pupils  and  assistants,  among  whom 
were  Tengnagel,  his  future  son-in-law,  and  the  cel- 
ebrated Longomontanus,  embarked  at  Copenhagen 
to  seek  the  hospitality  of  some  better  country  than 
their  own. 

Freighted  with  the  glory  of  Denmark,  this  inter- 
esting  bark  made  the  best  of  its  way  across  the 
Baltic,  and  arrived  safely  at  Rostoch.  Here  the 
exiled  patriarch  found  many  of  his  early  friends, 
particularly  Henry  Bruce,  an  able  astronomer,  to 
whom  he  had  formerly  presented  one  of  his  brass 
quadrants.  The  approach  of  the  plague,  how- 
ever, prevented  Tycho  from  making  any  arrange- 
ments for  a  permanent  residence  ;  and,  having  re- 
ceived a  warm  invitation  from  Count  Henry  Rant- 
zau,  who  lived  in  Holstein  at  the  castle  of  Wan- 
desberg,  near  Hamburg,  he  went  with  all  his  fami- 
ly, about  the  end  of  1597,  to  enjoy  the  hospitality 
of  his  friend. 

Though  Tycho  derived  the  highest  pleasure  from 
the  kindness  and  conversation  of  Count  Rantzau, 
yet  a  cloud  overshadowed  the  future,  and  he  had 


160  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

yet  to  seek  for  a  patron  and  a  home.  His  hopes 
were  fixed  on  the  Emperor  Rudolph,  who  was  not 
only  fond  of  science,  but  who  was  especially  ad- 
dieted  to  alchymy  and  astrology,  and  his  friend 
Rantzau  promised  to  have  him  introduced  to  the 
emperor  by  proper  letters.  When  Tycho  learned 
that  Rudolph  was  particularlyionToT"mechanical 
instruments  and  of  chymistry,  he  resolved  to  com- 
plete  and  to  dedicate  to  him  his  work  on  the  me- 
chanics of  astronomy,  and  to  add  to  it  an  account 
of  his  chymical  labours.  This  task  he  soon  per- 
formed,  and  his  work  appeared  in  1598,  under  the 
title  of  Tychonis  Brake,  Astronomia  instaurata  Me- 
chanica.  Along  with  this  work  he  transmitted  to 
the  emperor  a  copy  of  his  MS.  catalogue  of  1000 
fixed  stars. 

With  these  proofs  of  his  services  to  science,  and 
instigated  by  various  letters  in  his  favour,  the  Em- 
peror Rudolph  desired  his  vice-chancellor  to  send 
for  Tycho,  and  to  assure  him  that  he  would  be  re- 
ceived according  to  his  great  merits,  and  that  no- 
thing should  be  wanting  to  promote  his  scientific 
studies.  Leaving  his  wife  and  daughters  at  Wan- 
desberg,  and  taking  with  him  his  sons  and  his  pu- 
pils, Tycho  went  to  Wittemberg ;  but,  having  learn- 
ed that  the  plague  had  broken  out  at  Prague,  and 
that  the  emperor  had  gone  to  Pilsen,  he  deferred 
for  a  while  his  journey  into  Bohemia. 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  161 

jjarly  in  the  spring  of  1599,  when  the  pestilence 
had  ceased  at  Prague,  and  the  emperor  had  return-" 
ecTto  Ms  capital,  Tycho  set  out  for  Bohemia.  On 
his  arrival  at  Prague  he  found  a  splendid  house 
ready  for  his  reception,  and  a  kind  message  from 
the  emperor  prohibiting  him  from  paying  his  re- 
spects to  him  till  he  had  recovered  from  the  fa- 
tigues of  his  journey.  On  his  presentation  to  Ru- 
dolph, the  generous  emperor  received  him  with  the 
most  distinguished  kindness.  He  announced  to 
him  that  he  was  to  receive  an  annual  pension  of 
3000  crowns  ;  that  an  estate  would,  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, be  settled  upon  him  and  his  family  and  their 
successors  ;  that  a  town-house  would  be  provided 
for  him  ;  and  that  he  might  have  his  choice  of  va- 
rious castles  and  houses  in  the  country  as  the  site 
of  his  observatory  and  laboratory.  The  emperor 
had  also  taken  care  to  provide  everything  that  was 
necessary  for  Tycho's  immediate  wants  ;  and  so 
overwhelmed  was  he  with  such  unexpected  kind- 
ness, that  he  remarked  that,  as  he  could  not  find 
words  to  express  his  gratitude,  the  whole  heavens 
would  speak  for  him,  and  posterity  should  know 
what  a  refuge  his  great  and  good  sovereign  had 
been  to  the  Queen  of  the  Arts. 

Among  the  numerous  friends  whom  Tycho  found 
at  Prague  were  his  correspondents  Coroducius  and 
Hagecius,  and  his  benefactor  Barrovitius,  the  em- 
02 


162  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

peror's  secretary.  He  was  congratulated  by  them 
all  on  his  distinguished  reception  at  court,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  ^Eneas  of  science,  who  had  been 
driven  from  his  peaceful  home,  and  who  had  car- 
ried with  him  to  the  Latium  of  Germany  his  wife, 
his  children,  and  his  household  gods.  If  external 
circumstances  could  remove  the  sorrows  of  the 
past,  Tycho  must  now  have  been  supremely  happy. 
In  his  spacious  mansion,  which  had  belonged  to  his 
friend  Curtius,  he  found  a  position  for  one  of  his 
best  instruments ;  and  having  covered  with  poeti- 
cal inscriptions  the  four  sides  of  the  pedestal  on 
which  it  stood,  in  honour  of  his  benefactors  as  well 
as  of  former  astronomers,  he  resumed  with  dili- 
gence  his  examination  of  the  stars. 

When  Rudolph  saw  tho  magnificent  instruments 
which  Tycho  had  brought  along  with  him,  and  had 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  their  use,  he  pressed 
him  to  send  to  Denmark  for  the  still  larger  ones 
which  he  had  left  at  >Stiern-buig.  In  tin:  mean 
time,  he  gave  him  the  choice  of  the  castles  of  Bran- 
disium,  Lyssa,  and'Benach  as  his  country  resi- 
dence ;  and  after  visiting  them  about  the  end  of 
May,  Tycho  gave  the  preference  to  Benach,  which 
was  situated  upon  a  rising  ground,  and  commanded 
an  extensive  Horizon.  It  contained  splendid  and 
commodious  buildings,  and  was  almost,  as  he  calls 
it,  a  small  city,  situated  on  the  stream  Lisor,  near 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  163 

its  confluence  with  the  Albis.  It  stood  a  little  to 
the  east  and  north  of  Prague,  and  was  distant  from 
that  city  only  five  German  miles,  or  about  six  hours' 
journey. 

On  the  SQtii  of  August  the  Prefect  of  Brandis- 
ium  gave  Tycho  possession  of  his  new  residence. 
His  gratitude  to  his  royal  patron  was  copiously 
displayed,  not  only  in  a  Latin  poem  written  on  the 
occasion,  but  in  Latin  inscriptions  which  he  placed 
above  the  doors  of  his  observatory  and  his  labora- 
tory.  In  order  that  he  might  establish  an  astro- 
nomical school  at  Prague,  he  wrote  to  Longomonta- 
nus,  Kepler,  Miiller,  David  Fabricius,  and  two  stu- 
dents at  Wittemburg,  who  were  good  calculators, 
requesting  them  to  reside  with  him  at  Benach  as 
his  assistants  and  pupils  :  he  at  the  same  time  de- 
spatched his  destined  son-in-law,  Tengnagel,  ac- 
companied by  Pascal  Muleus,  to  bring  home  his 
wife  and  daughters  from  Wandesberg,  and  his  in- 
struments from  Huen ;  and  he  begged  that  Longo- 
montanus  would  accompany  them  to  Denmark,  and 
return  in  the  same  carriage  with  them  to  Bohemia. 

Kepler  arrived  at  Prague  in  January,  1600,  and, 
after  spending  three  or  four  months  at  Benach  in 
carrying  on  his  inquiries  and  in  making  astronom- 
ical observations,  he  returned  to  Gratz.  Tycho 
had  undertaken  to  obtain  for  him  the  appointment 
of  his  assistant.  It  was  arranged  that  the  emperor 


164  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

should  allow  him  a  hundred  florins,  on  the  condition 
that  the  states  of  Styria  would  permit  him  to  retain 
his  salary  for  two  years.  This  scheme,  however, 
failed,  and  Kepler  was  about  to  study  medicine,  and 
offer  himself  for  a  professorship  of  medicine  at  Tu- 
bingen, when  Tycho  undertook  to  obtain  him  a  per- 
manent  appointment  from  the  emperor.  Kepler 
accordingly  returned  in  September,  1601,  and,  on 
the  recommendation  of  his  friend,  he  was  named  im- 
perial mathematician,  on  the  condition  of  assisting 
Tycho  in  his  observations. 

Tycho  had  experienced  much  inconvenience  in 
his  residence  at  Benach  from  his  ignorance  of  the 
language  and  customs  of  the  country,  as  well  as 
from  other  causes.  He  was  therefore  anxious  to 
transfer  his  instruments  to  Prague ;  and  no  sooner 
were  his  wishes  conveyed  to  the  emperor  than  he 
gave  him  leave  to  send  them  to  the  royal  gardens 
and  the  adjacent  buildings.  His  family  and  his  lar- 
ger instruments  having  now  arrived  from  Huen,  the 
astronomer,  with  his  family  and  his  property,  were 
safely  lodged  in  the  royal  edifice.  Having  found 
that  there  was  no  house  in  Prague  more  suited  for 
his  purposes  than  that  of  his  late  friend  Curtius,  the 
emperor  purchased  it  from  his  widow,  and  Tycho 
removed  into  it  on  the  25th  of  February,  1601. 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  165 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Tycho  resumes  his  Astronomical  Observations. — Is  attacked 
with  a  painful  Disease. — His  Sufferings  and  Death  in  1601. 
— His  Funeral. — His  Temper. — His  Turn  for  Satire  and 
Raillery. — His  Piety. — Account  of  Astronomical  Discover- 
ies.— His  Love  of  Astrology  and  Alchymy. — Observations 
on  the  Character  of  the  Alchymists. — Tycho's  Elixir. — His 
Fondness  for  the  Marvellous. — His  Automata  and  Invisible 
Bells. — Account  of  the  Idiot,  called  Lep,  whom  he  kept  as 
a  Prophet. — History  of  Tycho's  Instruments. — His  great 
Brass  Globe  preserved  at  Copenhagen. — Present  State  of 
the  Island  of  Huen. 

ALTHOUGH  Tycho  continued  in  this  new  position 
to  observe  the  planets  with  his  usual  assiduity,  yet 
the  recollection  of  his  sufferings,  and  the  inconve- 
niences and  disappointments  which  he  had  expe- 
rienced, began  to  prey  upon  his  mind  and  to  affect 
his  health.  Notwithstanding  the  continued  liber- 
ality of  the  emperor,  and  the  kindness  of  his  friends 
and  pupils,  he  was  yet  a  stranger  in  a  distant  land. 
Misfortune  was  unable  to  subdue  that  love  of  coun- 
try which  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  his  af- 
fections ;  and,  though  its  ingratitude  might  have 
broken  the  chain  which  bound  him  to  the  land  of 
his  nativity,  it  seems  only  to  have  riveted  it  more 


166  TYCHO   BRAHE. 

firmly.  His  imagination,  thus  influenced,  acquired 
an  undue  predominance  over  his  judgment.  He 
viewed  the  most  trifling  occurrences  as  supernatu- 
ral indications ;  and  in  those  azure  moments  when 
the  clouds  broke  from  his  mind,  and  when  he  dis- 
played  his  usual  wit  and  pleasantry,  he  frequently 
turned  the  conversation  to  the  subject  of  his  latter 
end. 

This  state  of  mind  was  the  forerunner,  though 
probably  the  effect,  of  a  painful  disease,  which  had 
doubtless  its  origin  in  the  severity  and  continuity 
of  his  studies.  On  the  13th  of  October,  when  he 
was  supping  at  the  house  of  a  nobleman  called 
Rosenberg,  he  was  seized  with  a  retention  of  urine, 
which  forced  him  to  leave  the  party. 

This  attack  continued  with  little  intermission  for 
more  than  a  week,  and  during  this  period  he  suf- 
fered great  pain,  attended  with  want  of  sleep  and 
temporary  delirium,  during  which  he  frequently  ex- 
claimed, Ne  frustra  vixisse  videor.  On  the  24th 
he  recovered  from  this  painful  situation,  and  be- 
came perfectly  tranquil.  His  strength,  however, 
was  gone,  and  he  saw  that  he  had  not  many  hours 
to  live.  He  expressed  an  anxious  wish  that  his  la- 
bours  would  redound  to  the  glory  of  his  Maker,  to 
whom  he  offered  up  the  most  ardent  prayers.  He 
enjoined  his  son  and  his  son-in-law  not  to  allow 
them  to  be  lost.  He  encouraged  his  pupils  not  to 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  167 

abandon  their  pursuits,  he  requested  Kepler  to  com- 
plete the  Jludolphine  Tables,  and  to  his  family  he 
recommended  piety  and  resignation  to  the  Divine 
will.  Among  those  who  never  quitted  Tycho  in 
his  illness  was  Erick  Brahe,  Count  Wittehorn,  a 
Swede,  and  a  relation  of  his  own,  and  counsellor 
to  the  King  of  Poland.  This  amiable  individual 
never  left  the  bedside  of  his  friend,  and  administer- 
ed to  him  all  those  attentions  which  his  situation 
required.  Tycho,  turning  to  him,  thanked  him  for 
his  affectionate  kindness,  and  requested  him  to 
maintain  the  relationship  with  his  family.  He  then 
expired  without  pain,  amid  the  consolations,  the 
prayers,  and  the  tears  of  his  friends.  This  event 
took  place  on  the  gfi^bf  October,  ^1601,  when  he 
was  only  .fifty-four  years  and  ten  months  old. 

The  Emperor  Rudolph  evinced  the  greatest  sor- 
row when  he  was  informed  of  the  death  of  his  friend, 
and  he  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  buried  in  the 
most  honourable  manner,  in  the  principal  church 
of  the  ancient  city.*  The  funeral  took  place  on 
the  4th  of  November,  and  he  was  interred  in  the 
dress  of  a  nobleman,  and  with  the  ceremonies  of  his 
order.  The  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by 
Jessenius,  before  a  distinguished  assemblage,  and 
many  elegies  were  written  on  his  death. 

*  The  Church  of  Tiers,  where  a  monument  has  been  erect- 
ed to  his  memory. 


168  TYCHO   BRAHE. 

Tycho  was  a  little  above  the  middle  size,  and  in 
the  last  years  of  his  life  he  was  slightly  corpulent. 
He  had  reddish  yellow  hair  and  a  ruddy  complex. 
ion.  He  was  of  a  sanguine  temperament,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  sometimes  irritable,  and  even  ob- 
stinate. This  failing,  however,  if  he  did  possess 
it,  was  not  exhibited  towards  his  pupils  or  his  sci- 
entific friends,  who  ever  entertained  for  him  the 
warmest  affection  and  esteem.  Some  of  his  pupils 
had  remained  in  his  house  more  than  twenty  years ; 
and  in  the  quarrel  which  arose  between  him  and 
Kepler,*  and  which  is  allowed  to  have  originated 
entirely  in  the  temper  of  the  latter,  he  conducted 
himself  with  the  greatest  patience  and  forbearance. 
There  is  reason  to  think  that  the  irritability  with 
which  he  has  been  charged  was  less  an  affection  of 
his  mind  than  the  effect  of  that  noble  independence 
of  character  which  belonged  to  him,  and  that  it  has 
been  inferred  chiefly  from  his  conduct  to  some  of 
those  high  personages  with  whom  he  was  brought 
in  contact.  When  Walchendorp,  the  president  of 
the  council,  kicked  his  favourite  hound,  it  was  no 
proof  of  irritability  of  character  that  Tycho  ex- 
pressed in  strong  terms  his  disapprobation  of  the 
deed. 

It  was  doubtless  a  greater  weakness  m  his  char- 
acter  that  he  indulged  his  turn  for  satire  without 
*  See  the  Life  of  Kepler. 


TYCHO    BRAHE.  169 

being  able  to  bear  retaliation.  His  jocular  habits, 
too,  sometimes  led  him  into  disagreeable  positions. 
When  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  dining  with  him 
at  Uraniburg,  the  duke  said,  towards  the  end  of  the 
dinner,  that  as  it  as  late,  he  must  be  going.  Ty- 
cho  jocularly  remarked  that  this  could  not  be  done 
without  his  permission  ;  upon  which  the  duke  rose 
and  left  the  party  without  taking  leave  of  his  host. 
Tycho  became  indignant  in  his  turn,  and  continued 
to  sit  at  table  ;  but,  as  if  repenting  of  what  he  had 
done,  he  followed  the  duke,  who  was  on  his  way  to 
the  ship,  and,  calling  upon  him,  displayed  the  cup 
in  his  hand,  as  if  he  had  washed  out  his  offence  by 
a  draught  of  wine. 

Tycho  was  a  man  of  true  piety,  and  cherished 
the  deepest  veneration  for  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
and  for  the  great  truths  which  they  reveal.  Their 
principles  regulated  his  conduct,  and  their  promises 
animated  his  hopes.  His  familiarity  with  the  won. 
ders  of  the  heavens  increased  instead  of  diminish- 
ing his  admiration  of  Divine  wisdom,  and  his  daily 
conversation  was  elevated  by  a  constant  reference 
to  a  superintending  Providence. 

As  a  practical  astronomer,  Tycho  has  not  been 
surpassed  by  any  observer  of  ancient  or  of  modern 
times.  T^he  splendour  and  number  of  Jijs_ifiSjru- 
ments  ;  the  ingenuity  which  he  exhibited  in  invcnt- 
o'hes,  and  in  improving  and  adding  to  those 
P 


170  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

which  were  formerly  known,  and  his  skill  and  assi- 

tf»  ^^.^^M^MM^M***** 

auily  as  ^«ui  oJbsatvwvliave-givcTi  a"  character  to  his 
labours  and  a  value  to  his  observations  which  will 
be  appreciated  to  the  latest  posterity.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  new  star  in  1572  led  him  to  form 
a  catalogue  of  777  stars,  vastly  superior  in  accu- 
racy  to  those  of  Hipparchus  and  Ulugh  Beig.  His 
improvements  on  the  hinar  theory  were  still  more 
valuable.  He  discovered  the  important  inequality 
called  the  variation,  and  also  the  annual  inequality 
which  depends  on  the  position  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit.  He  discovered  also  the  inequality  in  the  in- 
clination  of  the  moon's  orbit  and  in  the  motion  of 
her  nodes.  He  determined  with  new  accuracy  the 
astronomical  refractions  from  an  altitude  of  45° 
down  to  the  horizon,  where  he  found  it  to  be  34' ; 
and  he  made  a  vast  collection  of  observations  on 
the  planets,  which  formed  the  groundwork  of  Kep- 
ler's discoveries  and  the  basis  of  the  Rudolphine 
Tables.  Tycho's  powers  of  observation  were  not 
'••  equalled  by  his  capacity  for  general  views.  It  was 
nerhaps  owi"g  rr™»  fr  ft*  YfinfirP*1^  far  thp  Spri> 
tures  than  to  the  vanity  of  giving  his  name  to  a  new 
gystSnrtnrrt  lie  rejected  the  Copernican  hypothesis. 
Hence  he  was  led  to  propose  a  new  system,  called 
the  Tychonic,  in  which  the  earth  is  stationary  in 
the  centre  of  the  universe,  while  the  sun,  with  all 
the  other  planets  and  comets  revolving  round  him, 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  171 

performs  his  daily  revolution  about  the  earth,  This 
arrangement  of  the  planets  afforded  a  sufficient  ex- 
planation of  the  various  phenomena  of  the  heav- 
ens ;  and  as  it  was  consistent  with  the  language  of 
Scripture,  and  conformable  to  the  indications  of  the 
senses,  it  found  many  supporters,  notwithstanding 
the  physical  absurdity  of  making  the  whole  system 
revolve  round  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  planets. 

It  is  a  painful  transition  to  pass  from  the  astro- 
nomical labours  of  Tycho  to  his  astrological  and 
chymical  pursuits.  That  Tycho  studied  and  prac- 
tised astrology  has  been  universally  admitted.  He 
calculated  the  nativity  of  the  Emperor  Rudolph, 
and  foretold  that  his  relations  would  make  some 
attempts  upon  his  life.  The  credulous  emperor 
confided  in  the  prediction,  and  when  the  conduct  of 
his  brother  seemed  to  justify  his  belief,  he  confined 
himself  to  his  palace,  and  fell  a  prey  to  the  fear 
which  it  inspired.  Tycho,  however,  seems  to  have 
entirely  renounced  his  astrological  faith  in  his  lat- 
ter days  ;  and  Kepler  states,*  in  the  most  pointed 
manner,  that  Tycho  carried  on  his  astronomical 
labours  with  his  mind  entirely  free  from  the  super- 
stitions of  astrology  ;  that  he  derided  and  detested 
the  vanity  and  knavery  of  astrologers,  and  was 
convinced  that  the  stars  exercised  no  influence  on 
the  destinies  of  men. 

*  In  his  Preface  to  the  Rudolphine  Tables. 


172  TYCHO    BRAHE. 

Although  Tycho  informed  Rothman  that  he  de- 
voted as  much  labour  and  expense  to  the  study  of 
terrestrial  (chymistry)  as  he  did  to  that  of  celestial 
astronomy,  yet  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  he  never 
published  any  account  of  his  experiments,  nor  has" 
he  left  among  his  writings  any  trace  of  his  chymi- 
cal  inquiries.  He  pretended,  however,  to  have 
made  discoveries  in  the  science ;  and  we  should 
have  been  disposed  to  reprobate  the  apology  which 
he  makes  for  not  publishing  them,  did  we  not  know 
that  it  had  been  frequently  given  by  the  other  al- 
chymists  of  the  age  :  "  On  consideration,"  says  he, 
"  and  by  the  advice  of  the  most  learned  men,  I 
thought  it  improper  to  unfold  the  secrets  of  the  art 
(of  alchymy)  to  the  vulgar,  as  few  persons  were 
capable  of  using  its  mysteries  to  advantage  and 
without  detriment." 

Admitting,  then,  as  we  must  do,  that  Tycho  was 
not  only  a  professed  alchymist,  but  that  he  was 
practically  occupied  with  its  pursuits  and  contin- 
ually misled  by  its  delusions,  it  may  not  be  unin- 
teresting to  the  reader  to  consider  how  far  a  belief 
in  alchymy,  and  a  practice  of  its  arts,  have  a  found- 
ation  in  the  weakness  of  human  nature,  and  to 
what  extent  they  are  compatible  with  the  piety  and 
elevated  moral  feeling  by  which  our  author  was 
distinguished. 

In  the  history  of  human  errors,  two  classes  of  im- 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  173 

posters,  of  very  different  characters,  present  them- 
selves to  our  notice  :  those  who  wilfully  deluded 
their  species,  and  those  who  permitted  their  species 
to  delude  themselves.  The  first  of  those  classes 
consisted  of  the  selfish  tyrants  who  upheld  an  un- 
just supremacy  by  systematic  delusions,  and  of 
grovelling  mountebanks  who  quenched  their  avari- 
cious thirst  at  the  fountains  of  credulity  and  igno- 
rance. The  second  class  comprehended  spirits  of 
a  nobler  mould  :  it  embraced  the  speculative  en- 
thusiasts, whom  the  love  of  fame  and  of  truth  urged 
onward  in  a  fruitless  research,  and  those  great  lights 
of  knowledge  and  of  virtue,  who,  while  they  stood 
forward  as  the  landmarks  of  the  age  which  they 
adorned,  had  neither  the  intellectual  nor  the  moral 
courage  to  divest  themselves  of  the  supernatural 
radiance  with  which  the  ignorance  of  the  vulgar 
had  encircled  them. 

The  thrones  and  shrines  which  delusion  once 
sustained  even  in  the  civilized  quarter  of  the  globe, 
are  forever  fallen,  and  that  civil  and  religious  lib- 
erty, which  in  past  ages  was  kept  down  by  the  mar- 
vellous exhibitions  of  science  to  the  senses,  is  now 
maintained  by  its  application  to  the  reason  of  man. 
The  charlatans,  whether  they  deal  in  moral  or  in 
physical  wonders,  form  a  race  which  is  never  ex- 
tinct. They  migrate  to  the  different  zones  of  the 
social  system,  and  though  they  change  their  place, 
P2 


174  TYCHO   BRAKE. 

and  their  purposes,  and  their  victims,  yet  their  char- 
acter  and  motives  remain  the  same.  The  philo- 
sophical mind,  therefore,  is  not  disposed  to  study 
either  of  these  varieties  of  impostors  ;  but  the  other 
two  families  which  compose  the  second  class  are 
objects  of  paramount  interest.  The  eccentricities 
and  even  the  obliquities  of  great  minds  merit  the 
scrutiny  of  the  metaphysician  and  the  moralist,  and 
they  derive  a  peculiar  interest  from  the  state  of  so- 
ciety in  which  they  are  exhibited.  Had  Cardan 
and  Cornelius  Agrippa  lived  in  modern  times,  their 
vanity  and  self-importance  would  have  been  check- 
ed by  the  forms  of  society ;  and  even  if  their  harm, 
less  pretensions  had  been  displayed,  they  would 
have  disappeared  in  the  blaze  of  their  genius  and 
knowledge.  But,  nursed  in  superstition,  and  edu- 
cated in  dark  and  turbulent  times,  when  everything 
intellectual  was  in  a  state  of  restless  transition,  the 
genius  and  character  of  great  men  necessarily  re- 
flected the  peculiarities  of  the  age  in  which  they 
lived. 

Had  history  transmitted  to  us  correct  details  of 
the  leading  alchymists  and  scientific  magicians  of 
the  dark  ages,  we  should  have  been  able  to  analyze 
their  actions  and  their  opinions,  and  trace  them, 
probably,  to  the  ordinary  principles  by  which  the 
human  mind  is  in  every  age  influenced  and  direct- 
ed. But  when  a  great  man  has  once  become  an 


TYCHO    BRAHE.  175 

object  either  of  interest  or  of  wonder,  and  still 
more  when  he  is  considered  as  the  possessor  of 
knowledge  and  skill  which  transcend  the  capacity 
of  the  age,  he  is  soon  transformed  into  the  hero  of 
romance.  His  powers  are  overrated,  his  deeds  ex- 
aggerated, and  he  becomes  the  subject  of  idle  le- 
gends,  which  acquire  a  firmer  hold  on  credulity 
from  the  slight  sprinkling  of  truth  with  which  they 
are  seasoned.  To  disclaim  the  possession  of  lofty 
attributes  thus  ascribed  to  great  men  is  a  degree 
of  humility  which  is  not  often  exercised.  But  even 
when  this  species  of  modesty  is  displayed,  it  never 
fails  to  defeat  its  object.  It  but  calls  forth  a  deep- 
er homage,  and  fixes  the  demigod  more  firmly  in 
his  shrine. 

The  history  of  learning  furnishes  us  with  many 
examples  of  that  species  of  delusion  in  which  a 
great  mind  submits  itself  to  vulgar  adulation,  and 
renounces  unwillingly,  if  it  renounces  at  all,  the 
unenviable  reputation  of  supernatural  agency.  In 
cases  where  self-interest  and  ambition  are  the  basis 
of  this  peculiarity  of  temperament,  and  in  an  age 
when  the  conjuror  and  the  alchymist  were  the  com- 
panions  and  even  the  idols  of  princes,  it  is  easy  to 
trace  the  steps  by  which  a  gifted  sage  retains  his 
ascendancy  among  the  ignorant.  The  hecatomb 
which  is  sacrificed  to  the  magician  he  receives  as 
an  oblation  to  his  science,  and,  conscious  of  poe- 


176  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

sessing  real  endowments,  the  idol  devours  the 
meats  that  are  offered  to  him  without  analyzing  the 
motives  and  expectations  under  which  he  is  fed. 
But  even  when  the  idolater  and  his  god  are  not 
placed  in  this  transverse  relation,  the  love  of  pow- 
er or  of  notoriety  is  sufficient  to  induce  good  men 
to  lend  a  too  willing  ear  to  vulgar  testimony  in  fa- 
vour of  themselves  ;  and  in  our  own  times  it  is  not 
common  to  repudiate  the  unmerited  cheers  of  a 
popular  assembly,  or  to  offer  a  contradiction  to  fic- 
titious tales  which  record  our  talents  or  our  cour- 
age, our  charity  or  our  piety. 

The  conduct  of  the  scientific  alchymists  of  the 
thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries  pre- 
sents a  problem  of  very  difficult  solution.  When 
we  consider  that  a  gas,  a  fluid,  and  a  solid  may 
consist  of  the  very  same  ingredients  in  different 
proportions  ;  that  a  virulent  poison  may  differ  from 
the  most  wholesome  food  only  in  the  difference  of 
quantity  of  the  very  same  elements  ;  that  gold  and 
silver,  and  lead  and  mercury,  and,  indeed,  all  the 
metals,  may  be  extracted  from  transparent  crystals, 
which  scarcely  differ  in  their  appearance  from  a 
piece  of  common  salt  or  a  bit  of  sugarcandy  ;  and 
that  diamond  is  nothing  more  than  charcoal,  we 
need  not  greatly  wonder  at  the  extravagant  expec- 
tation that  the  precious  metals  and  the  noblest 
gems  might  be  procured  from  the  basest  materials. 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  177 

These  expectations,  too,  must  have  been  often  ex- 
cited  by  the  startling  results  of  their  daily  experi- 
ments. The  most  ignorant  compounder  of  simples 
could  not  fail  to  witness  the  magical  transforma- 
tions  of  chymical  action  ;  and  every  new  product 
must  have  added  to  the  probability  that  the  tempt- 
ing  doublets  of  gold  and  silver  might  be  thrown 
from  the  dice-box  with  which  he  was  gambling. 

But  when  the  precious  metals  were  found  in  lead 
and  copper  by  the  action  of  powerful  reagents  it 
was  natural  to  suppose  that  they  had  been  actually 
formed  during  the  process  ;  and  men  of  well-regu- 
lated minds  even  might  have  thus  been  led  to  em- 
bark in  new  adventures  to  procure  a  more  copious 
supply,  without  any  insult  being  offered  to  sober 
reason,  or  any  injury  inflicted  on  sound  morality. 

When  an  ardent  and  ambitious  mind  is  once 
dazzled  with  the  fascination  of  some  lofty  pursuit, 
where  gold  is  the  object  or  fame  the  impulse,  it  is 
difficult  to  pause  in  a  doubtful  career,  and  to  make 
a  voluntary  shipwreck  of  the  reputation  which  has 
been  staked.  Hope  still  cheers  the  aspirant  from 
failure  to  failure,  till  the  loss  of  fortune  and  the  de- 
cay of  credit  disturb  the  serenity  of  his  mind,  and 
hurry  him  on  to  the  last  resource  of  baffled  inge- 
nuity and  disappointed  ambition.  The  philosopher 
thus  becomes  an  impostor  ;  and  by  the  pretended 
transmutation  of  the  baser  metals  into  gold  or  the 


178  TTCHO   BRAHE. 

discovery  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  he  attempts  to 
sustain  his  sinking  reputation  and  recover  the  for- 
tune he  has  lost.  The  communication  of  the  great 
secret  is  now  the  staple  commodity  with  which  he 
is  to  barter,  and  the  grand  talisman  with  which  he 
is  to  conjure.  It  can  be  imparted  only  to  a  chosen 
few  :  to  those  among  the  opulent  who  merit  it  by 
their  virtues  and  can  acquire  it  by  their  diligence, 
and  the  Divine  vengeance  is  threatened  against  its 
disclosure.  A  process  commencing  in  fraud  and 
terminating  in  mysticism  is  conveyed  to  the  wealthy 
aspirant  or  instilled  into  the  young  enthusiast,  and 
the  grand  mystery  passes  current  for  a  season,  till 
some  cautious  professor  of  the  art,  like  Tycho,  de- 
nounces its  publication  as  detrimental  to  society. 

Among  the  extravagant  pretensions  of  the  al- 
chymists,  that  of  forming  a  universal  medicine  was 
perhaps  not  the  most  irrational.  It  was  only  when 
they  pretended  to  cure  every  disease  and  to  con- 
fer  longevity  that  they  did  violence  to  reason. 
The  success  of  the  Arabian  physicians  in  the  use 
of  mercurial  preparations  naturally  led  to  the  belief 
that  other  medicines,  still  more  general  in  their  ap- 
plication and  efficacious  in  their  healing  powers, 
might  still  be  brought  to  light ;  and  we  have  no 
doubt  that  many  substantial  discoveries  were  the 
result  of  such  overstrained  expectations.  Tycho 
was  not  merely  a  believer  in  the  medical  dogmas 


TYCHO   BRAKE.  179 

of  the  alchymists,  he  was  actually  the  discoverer  of 
a  new  elixir,  which  went  by  his  name,  and  which 
was  sold  in  every  apothecary's  shop  as  a  specific 
against  the  epidemic  diseases  which  were  then  rav- 
aging Germany.  The  Emperor  Rudolph  having 
heard  of  this  celebrated  medicine,  obtained' a  small 
portion  of  it  from  Tycho  by  the  hands  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  Brandisium  ;  but,  not  satisfied  with  the 
gift,  he  seems  to  have  applied  to  Tycho  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  method  of  preparing  it.  Tycho  ac- 
cordingly addressed  to  the  emperor  a  long  letter, 
dated  September  7,  1599,  containing  a  minute  ac- 
count of  the  process.  The  base  of  this  remarka- 
ble medicine  is  Venetian  treacle,  which  undergoes 
an  infinity  of  chymical  operations  and  admixtures 
before  it  is  ready  for  the  patient.  When  properly 
prepared,  he  assures  the  emperor  that  it  is  better 
than  gold,  and  that  it  may  be  made  still  more  val- 
uable by  mixing  with  it  a  single  scruple  either  of 
the  tincture  of  corals,  or  sapphire,  or  hyacinth,  or 
a  solution  of  pearls,  or  of  potable  gold,  if  it  can  be 
obtained  free  of  all  corrosive  matter  !  In  order  to 
render  the  medicine  universal  for  all  diseases  which 
can  be  cured  by  perspiration,  and  which,  he  says, 
form  a  third  of  those  which  attack  the  human  frame, 
he  combines  it  with  antimony,  a  well-known  sudo- 
rific in  the  present  practice  of  physic.  Tycho  con- 
cludes this  letter  by  humbly  beseeching  the  emperor 


180  TYCHO   BRAHE. 

to  keep  the  process  secret,  and  reserve  the  medi- 
cine for  himself  alone ! 

The  same  disposition  of  mind  which  made  Tycho 
an  astrologer  and  an  alchymist,  inspired  him  with 
a  singular  love  of  the  marvellous. 

He  had  various  automata  with  which  he  delight. 
ed  to  astonish  the  peasants  ;  and  by  means  of  in- 
visible bells,  which  communicated  with  every  part 
of  his  establishment,  and  which  rung  with  the  gen- 
llest  touch,  he  had  great  pleasure  in  bringing  any 
of  his  pupils  suddenly  before  strangers,  muttering 
at  a  particular  time  the  words  "  Come  hither,  Peter," 
as  if  he  had  commanded  their  presence  by  some 
supernatural  agency.  If,  on  leaving  home,  he  met 
with  an  old  woman  or  a  hare,  he  returned  imme- 
diately to  his  house  :  but  the  most  extraordinary 
of  all  his  peculiarities  remains  to  be  noticed.  When 
he  lived  at  Uraniburg  he  maintained  an  idiot  of  the 
name  of  Lep,  who  lay  at  his  feet  whenever  he  sat 
down  to  dinner,  and  whom  he  fed  with  his  own 
hand.  Persuaded  that  his  mind,  when  moved,  was 
capable  of  foretelling  future  events,  Tycho  carefully 
marked  everything  he  said.  Lest  it  should  be  sup- 
posed that  this  was  done  to  no  purpose,  Longomon- 
tanus  relates,  that  when  any  person  in  the  island 
was  sick,  Lep  never,  when  interrogated,  failed  to 
predict  whether  the  patient  would  live  or  die.  It 
is  stated  also  in  the  letters  of  Wormius,  both  to 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  181 

Gassendi  and  Peyter,  that  when  Tycho  was  absent, 
and  his  pupils  became  very  noisy  and  merry  in  con- 
sequence of  not  expecting  him  soon  home,  the  idiot, 
who  was  present,  exclaimed,  Juncher  xaa  laudit, 
"Your  master  has  arrived."  On  another  occa- 
sion, when  Tycho  had  sent  two  of  his  pupils  to  Co- 
penhagen on  business,  and  had  fixed  the  day  of  their 
return,  Lep  surprised  him  on  that  day  while  he  was 
at  dinner  by  exclaiming,  "  Behold,  your  pupils  are 
bathing  in  the  sea."  Tycho,  suspecting  that  they 
were  shipwrecked,  sent  some  person  to  the  observa- 
tory to  look  for  their  boat.  The  messenger  brought 
back  word  that  he  saw  some  persons  wet  on  the 
shore  and  in  distress,  with  a  boat  upset  at  a  great 
distance.  These  stories  have  been  given  by  Gas- 
sendi, and  may  be  viewed  as  specimens  of  the  su. 
perstition  of  the  age. 

Tycho  left  behind  him  a  wife  and  six  children,  but 
even  in  the  time  of  Gassendi  nothing  was  known  of 
their  history,  excepting  that  Tengnagel,  who  mar- 
ried one  of  the  daughters,  gave  up  his  scientific  pur- 
suits, and,  having  been  admitted  among  the  emper- 
or's counsellors,  was  employed  in  several  of  his 
embassies. 

The  instruments  of  Tycho  were  purchased  from 
his  heirs  by  the  emperor  for  22,000  crowns.  They 
were  shut  up  in  the  house  of  Curtius,  and  were  treat- 
ed with  such  veneration  that  no  astronomer,  not 
Q 


182  TYCHO    BRAKE. 

even  Kepler  himself,  was  permitted  to  see  or  to  use 
them. 

Here  they  remained  till  the  death  of  the  Emper- 
or Matthias  in  1619,  when  the  troubles  in  Bohe- 
mia took  place.  When  Prague  was  taken  by  the 
forces  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  the  instruments  were 
carried  off,  and  some  were  destroyed,  and  others 
converted  to  different  purposes.  The  great  brass 
globe,  however,  was  saved.  It  was  first  carried  to 
Niessa,  the  episcopal  city  of  Silesia ;  and,  having 
been  presented  to  the  College  of  Jesuits,  it  was  pre- 
served in  their  museum  till  Udalric,  the  son  of 
Christian,  king  of  Denmark,  took  Niessa  in  1632. 
The  globe  was  recognised  as  having  belonged  to 
Tycho,  and  it  was  carried  in  triumph  to  Denmark. 
An  inscription  was  written  upon  it  by  Longomon- 
tanus,  and  it  was  deposited  with  some  pomp  in  the 
Library  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

After  Tycho  left  Huen,  the  island  was  transfer- 
red to  some  of  the  Danish  nobility,  and  the  fol- 
lowing brief  but  melancholy  description  of  it  was 
given  by  Wormius  :  "  There  is  in  the  island  a  field 
where  Uraniburg  was."  The  scientific  antiquities 
of  Huen  have  been  more  recently  described  by  Mr. 
Cox  in  his  travels  through  Denmark. 

"  We  landed,"  says  he,  "  on  the  southwest  part, 
in  a  small  bay,  just  below  the  place  where  a  stream, 
supplied  by  numerous  pools  and  fishponds,  fails 


TYCHO    BRAKE.  183 

into  the  sea.  We  ascended  the  shore,  which  is 
clothed  with  short  herbage,  crossed  the  stream,  and 
passed  over  a  gently- waving  surface,  gradually  slo- 
ping towards  the  sea,  and  walked  a  mile  to  a  farm- 
house, standing  in  the  middle  of  the  island,  inhabit- 
ed by  Mr.  Schaw,  a  Swedish  gentleman,  to  whom 
the  greater  part  of  the  island  belongs.  He  lives 
here  in  summer,  but  in  winter  resides  at  Land- 
scrona.  This  dwelling  is  the  same  as  existed  in 
Tycho  Brahe's  time,  and  was  the  farmhouse  be- 
longing to  his  estate.  A  guide,  whom  we  obtained 
from  Mr.  Schaw,  conducted  us  to  the  remains  of 
Tycho's  mansion,  which  are  near  the  house,  and 
consist  of  little  more  than  a  mound  of  earth  which 
enclosed  the  garden,  and  two  pits,  the  sites  of  his 
mansion  and  observatory."* 

*  Cox's  Travels  in  Poland,  &c.,  vol.  v.,  p.  189,  190. 


LIFE 


OF 


JOHN    KEPLER. 


LIFE    OF    JOHN    KEPLER. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Kepler's  Birth  in  1571. — His  Family  and  early  Education. — 
The  Distress  and  Poverty  of  his  Family. — He  enters  the 
Monastic  School  of  Mauibronn,  and  is  admitted  into  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  where  he  distinguishes  himself  and 
takes  his  Degrees. — He  is  appointed  Professor  of  Astrono- 
my and  Greek  in  1594. — His  first  Speculations  on  the  Or- 
bits of  the  Planets. — Account  of  their  Progress  and  Fail- 
ure.— His  "  Cosmographical  Mystery"  published. — He  Mar- 
ries a  Widow  in  1597. — Religious  Troubles  at  Gratz. — He 
retires  from  thence  to  Hungary. — Visits  Tycho  at  Prague 
in  1600. — Returns  to  Gratz,  which  he  again  quits  for 
Prague. — He  is  taken  111  on  the  Road. — Is  appointed  Ty- 
cho's  Assistant  in  1601. — Succeeds  Tycho  as  Imperial 
Mathematician. — His  Work  on  the  new  Star  of  1604T. — 
Singular  Specimen  of  it. 

IT  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  history  of 
science,  that  astronomy  should  have  been  cultiva- 
ted at  the  same  time  by  three  such  distinguished 
men  as  Tycho,  Kepler,  and  Galileo.  While  Tycho, 
in  the  54th  year  of  his  age,  was  observing  the  heav- 
ens at  Prague,  Kepler,  only  30  years  old,  was  ap- 
plying his  wild  genius  to  the  determination  of  the 
orbit  of  Mars,  and  Galileo,  at  the  age  of  36,  was 


188  JOHN    KEPLER. 

about  to  direct  the  telescope  to  the  unexplored  re- 
gions  of  space.  The  diversity  of  gifts  which  Prov- 
idence assigned  to  these  three  philosophers  was  no 
less  remarkable.  Tycho  was  destined  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  modern  astronomy  by  a  vast  series  of 
accurate  observations  made  with  the  largest  and  the 
finest  instruments  ;  it  was  the  proud  lot  of  Kepler 
to  deduce  the  laws  of  the  planetary  orbits  from  the 
observations  of  his  predecessors ;  while  Galileo  en- 
joyed  the  more  dazzling  honour  of  discovering  by 
the  telescope  new  celestial  bodies  and  new  systems 
of  worlds. 

John  Kepler,  the  youngest  of  this  illustrious  band, 
was  born  at  the  imperial  city  of  Weil,  in  the  duchy 
of  Wirtemburg,  on  the  21st  December,  1571.  His 
parents,  Henry  Kepler  and  Catharine  Guldenmann, 
were  both  of  noble  family,  but  had  been  reduced  to 
mergence  by  their  own  bad  conduct.  Henry  Kep- 
ler had  been  long  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of 
Wirtemburg  as  a  petty  officer,  and  in  that  capacity 
had  wasted  his  fortune.  Upon  setting  out  for  the 
army  he  left  his  wife  in  a  state  of  pregnancy,  and 
at  the  end  of  seven  -months  she  gave  premature 
birth  to  John  Kepler,  who  was,  from  this  cause,  a 
sickly  child  during  the  first  years  of  his  life.  Be- 
ing obliged  to  join  the  army  in  the  Netherlands,  his 
wife  followed  him  into  the  field,  and  left  her  son, 
then  five  years  old,  under  the  charge  of  his  grand- 


JOHN    KEPLER.  189 

father  at  Limberg.  Some  time  afterward  he  was 
attacked  with  the  smallpox,  and  having  with  diffi- 
culty recovered  from  this  severe  malady,  he  was 
sent  to  school  in  1577. 

Having  become  security  for  one  of  his  friends, 
who  absconded  from  his  creditors,  Henry  Kepler 
was  obliged  to  sell  his  house  and  all  his  property, 
and  was  driven  to  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  tav- 
ern at  Elmendingen.  Owing  to  these  misfortunes, 
young  Kepler  was  taken  from  school  about  two 
years  afterward,  and  was  obliged  to  perform  the 
functions  of  a  servant  in  his  father's  house.  In 
1585  he  was  again  placed  in  the  school  of  Elmen- 
dingen ;  but  his  father  and  mother  having  been 
both  attacked  with  the  smallpox,  and  he  himself 
having  been  seized  with  a  violent  illness  in  1585, 
his  education  had  been  much  neglected,  and  he  was 
prohibited  from  all  mental  application. 

In  the  year  1586,  on  the  26th  of  November,  Kep- 
ler was  admitted  into  the  school  at  the  Monastery 
of  Maulbronn,  which  had  been  established  at  the 
Reformation,  and  which  was  maintained  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Duke  of  Wirtemburg,  as  a  preparato- 
ry seminary  for  the  University  of  Tubingen.  After 
remaining  a  year  at  the  upper  classes,  the  scholars 
presented  themselves  for  examination  at  the  College 
for  the  degree  of  Bachelor;  and,  having  received 
this,  they  returned  to  the  school  with  the  title  of 


190  JOHN    KEPLER. 

Veterans.  Here  they  completed  the  usual  course 
of  study  ;  and  being  admitted  as  resident  students 
at  Tubingen,  they  took  their  degree  of  Master.  In 
prosecuting  this  course  of  study  Kepler  was  sadly 
interrupted,  not  only  by  periodical  returns  of  his 
former  complaints,  but  by  family  quarrels  of  the  most 
serious  import.  These  dissensions,  arising  greatly 
from  the  perverseness  of  his  mother,  drove  his  fa- 
ther  to  a  foreign  land,  where  he  soon  died  ;  and 
his  mother  having  quarrelled  with  all  her  relations, 
the  affairs  of  the  family  were  involved  in  inextrica- 
ble disorder.  Notwithstanding  these  calamities, 
Kepler  took  his  degree  of  Bachelor  on  the  15th  of 
September,  1588,  and  his  degree  of  Master  in  Au- 
gust, 1591,  on  which  occasion  he  held  the  second 
place  at  the  annual  examination. 

In  his  early  studies  Kepler  devoted  himself  with 
intense  pleasure  to  philosophy  in  general,  but  he  en- 
tertained no  peculiar  affection  for  astronomy.  Be- 
ing well  grounded  in  arithmetic  and  geometry,  he 
had  no  difficulty  in  making  himself  master  of  the 
geometrical  and  astronomical  theorems  which  oc- 
curred in  the  course  of  his  studies.  While  attend- 
ing the  lectures  of  Mcestlin,  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics, who  had  distinguished  himself  by  an  oration  in 
favour  of  the  Copernican  system,  Kepler  not  only 
became  a  convert  to  the  opinions  of  his  master,  but 
defended  them  in  the  physical  disputations  of  the 


JOHN    KEPLER.  191 

students,  and  even  wrote  an  essay  on  the  primary 
motion,  in  order  to  prove  that  it  was  produced  by 
the  daily  rotation  of  the  earth. 

In  1594,  the  astronomical  chair  at  Gratz,  in  Sty- 
ria,  fell  vacant  by  the  death  of  George  Stadt,  and, 
according  to  Kepler's  own  statement,  he  was  forced 
to  accept  this  situation  by  the  authority  of  his  pro- 
fessional  tutors,  "who  recommended  him  to  the  no- 
bles  of  Styria.  Though  Kepler  had  little  knowl- 
edge of  the  science,  and  no  passion  for  it  whatever, 
yet  the  nature  of  his  office  forced  him  to  attend  to 
astronomy ;  and  in  the  year  1595,  when  he  enjoy- 
ed some  leisure  from  his  lectures,  he.  directed  the 
whole  energy  of  his  mind  to  the  three  important 
topics  of  the  number,  the  size,  and  the  motion  of 
the  orbits  of  the  planets.  He  first  tried  if  the  size 
of  the  planets'  orbits,  or  the  difference  of  their  sizes, 
had  any  regular  proportion  to  each  other.  Find- 
ing  -no  proof  of  this,  he  inserted  a  new  planet  be- 
tween Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  another  between  Ve- 
nus and  Mercury,  which  he  supposed  might  be  in. 
visible  from  their  smallness ;  but  even  with  these 
assumptions  the  distances  of  the  planets  exhibited 
no  regular  progression.  Kepler  next  tried  if  these 
distances  varied  as  the  cosines  of  the  quadrant,  and 
if  their  motion  varied  as  the  sun's,  the  sine  of  90 
representing  the  motion  at  the  sun,  and  the  sine  of 
0°  that  at  the  fixed  stars ;  but  in  this  trial  he  was 
also  disappointed. 


192  JOHN  KEPLER. 

Having  spent  the  whole  summer  in  these  fruit- 
less  speculations,  and  praying  constantly  to  his  Ma- 
ker for  success,  he  was  accidentally  drawing  a  dia- 
gram in  his  lecture-room  in  July,  1595,  when  he 
observed  the  relation  between  the  circle  inscribed 
in  a  triangle  and  that  described  round  it ;  and  the 
ratio  of  these  circles,  which  was  that  of  1  to  2,  ap- 
peared to  his  eye  to  be  identical  with  that  of  Jupi- 
ter's and  Saturn's  orbits.  Hence  he  was  led  to 
compare  the  orbits  of  the  other  planets'  circles  de- 
scribed in  pentagons  and  hexagons.  As  this  hypoth- 
esis was  as  inapplicable  to  the  heavens  as  its  pred- 
ecessors, Kepler  asked  himself,  in  despair,  "  What 
have  plane  figures  to  do  with  solid  orbits  ?  Solid 
bodies  ought  to  be  used  for  solid  orbits."  On  the 
strength  of  this  conceit,  he  supposed  that  the  dis- 
tances of  the  planets  were  regulated  by  the  sizes  of 
the  five  regular  solids  described  within  one  another. 
"  The  Earth  is  the  circle,  the  measurer  of  all. 
Round  it  describe  a  dodecahedron ;  the  circle  in- 
cluding this  will  be  Mars.  Round  Mars  describe  a 
tetrahedron ;  the  circle  including  this  will  be  Jupi- 
ter. Describe  a  cube  round  Jupiter ;  the  circle  in- 
cluding this  will  be  Saturn.  Then  inscribe  in  the 
Earth  an  icosahedron ;  the  circle  described  in  it  will 
be  Venus.  Inscribe  an  octohedron  in  Venus  ;  the 
circle  inscribed  in  it  will  be  Mercury." 

This  discovery,  as  he  considered  it,  harmonized 


JOHN  KEPLER.  193 

in  a  very  rude  way  with  the  measures  of  the  plan- 
etary  orbits  given  by  Copernicus ;  but  Kepler  was 
so  enamoured  with  it,  that  he  ascribed  the  differen- 
ces to  errors  of  observation,  and  declared  that  he 
would  not  renounce  the  glory  of  having  made  it  for 
the  whole  Electorate  of  Saxony. 

In  his  attempt  to  discover  the  relation  between 
the  periodic  times  of  the  planets  and  their  distances 
from  the  sun,  he  was  not  more  successful ;  but  as 
this  relation  had  a  real  existence,  he  made  some 
slight  approach  to  its  determination.  These  ex- 
traordinary researches,  which  indicate  the  wildness 
and  irregularity  of  Kepler's  genius,  were  published 
in  1596,  in  a  work  entitled  "  Prodromus  of  Cosmo- 
graphical  Dissertations ;  containing  the  cosmo- 
graphical  mystery  respecting  the  admirable  pro- 
portion of  the  celestial  orbits,  and  the  genuine  and 
real  causes  of  the  number,  magnitude,  and  periods 
of  the  planets  demonstrated  by  the  five  regular  ge- 
ometrical solids." 

Notwithstanding  the  speculative  character  of  this 
volume,  it  obtained  for  its  author  a  high  name 
among  astronomers.  Galileo  and  Tycho,  whose 
opinions  of  it  he  requested,  spoke  of  it  with  some 
commendation.  The  former  praised  the  ingenuity 
and  good  faith  which  it  displayed ;  and  Tycho, 
though  he  requested  him  to  try  to  adapt  something 
of  the  same  nature  to  the  Tychonic  system,  saw 
R 


194  JOHN   KEPLER. 

the  speculative  character  of  his  mind,  and  advised 
him  "  to  lay  a  solid  foundation  for  his  views  by  ac- 
tual observation,  and  then,  by  ascending  from  these, 
to  strive  to  reach  the  causes  of  things." 

In  1592,  before  Kepler  had  quitted  Tubingen, 
he  was  on  the  eve  of  entering  into  the  married 
state.  Though  the  foolish  scheme  was  fortunately 
broken  off,  yet  he  resumed  it  again  in  1596,  when 
he  paid  his  addresses  to  Barbara  Millar,  of  Muleckh, 
who  was  a  widow  for  the  second  time,  though  only 
twenty-three  years  of  age.  Her  parents,  however, 
would  not  consent  to  the  match  till  Kepler  proved 
his  nobility  ;  and,  owing  to  the  delay  which  arose 
from  this  circumstance,  the  marriage  did  not  take 
place  till  1597.  The  income  which  Kepler  derived 
from  his  professorship  was  very  small,  and  as  his 
wife's  fortune  turned  out  less  than  he  had  been  led 
to  expect,  he  not  only  was  annoyed  with  pecuniary 
difficulties,  but  was  involved  in  disputes  with  his 
wife's  relations.  These  evils  were  greatly  increas- 
ed by  the  religious  troubles  which  took  place  in 
Styria.  The  Catholics  at  Gratz  rose  against  the 
Protestants,  and  threatened  to  expel  them  from  the 
city.  Kepler,  who  openly  professed  the  Protestant 
religion,  saw  the  risks  to  which  he  was  exposed, 
and  retired  with  his  wife  into  Hungary.  Here  he 
continued  nearly  a  year,  during  which  he  composed 
and  transmitted  to  his  friend  Zehentmaier,  at  Tu- 


JOHN    KEPLER.  195 

bingen,  several  small  treatises,  "  On  the  Magnet," 
«  On  the  Cause  of  the  Obliquity  of  the  Ecliptic," 
and  "  On  the  Divine  Wisdom,  as  shown  in  the 
Creation,"  all  of  which  seem  to  have  been  lost.  In 
1599  Kepler  was  recalled  to  Gratz  by  the  States 
of  Styria,  and  resumed  his  professorship  ;  but  the 
city  was  still  divided  into  two  factions,  and  Kepler, 
who  was  a  lover  of  peace,  found  his  situation  very 
uncomfortable.  Having  learned  from  Tycho  that 
he  had  been  able  to  determine  more  accurately  than 
had  been  done  the  eccentricities  of  the  orbits  of  the 
planets,  Kepler  was  anxious  to  avail  himself  of 
these  observations,  and  set  out  on  a  visit  to  Tycho 
at  Prague,  where  he  arrived  in  January,  1600. 
Tycho  received  him  with  great  kindness,  notwith- 
standing the  part  which  he  had  taken  against  him 
along  with  Raimar,  and  he  spent  three  or  four 
months  with  him  at  Benach.  It  was  then  arranged 
that  Kepler  should  be  appointed  Tycho's  assistant 
in  the  observatory,  with  a  salary  of  100  florins, 
provided  the  States  of  Styria  should,  on  the  em- 
peror's application,  allow  him  to  be  absent  for  two 
years  and  retain  his  salary.  Kepler  had  returned 
to  Gratz  before  this  arrangement  was  completed, 
and  new  troubles  having  broke  out  in  that  city,  he 
resigned  his  professorship.  Dreading  lest  this  step 
would  frustrate  his  scheme  of  joining  Tycho,  he 
resolved  to  ask  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Wir. 


196  JOHN   KEPLER. 

temburg  for  the  professorship  of  medicine  at  Tu- 
bingen  ;  and  with  this  view  he  corresponded  with 
Moestlin  and  his  other  friends  in  that  University. 
When  Tycho  heard  of  this  plan,  he  pressed  him  to 
abandon  it,  and  promised  his  best  exertions  to  pro- 
cure a  permanent  situation  for  him  from  the  em- 
peror. 

Encouraged  by  these  promises,  Kepler  and  his 
wife  set  off  for  Prague,  but  he  was  unfortunately 
attacked  on  the  road  with  a  quartan  ague,  which 
lasted  seven  months ;  and  having  exhausted  the 
little  money  which  he  had  along  with  him,  he  was 
obliged  to  apply  to  Tycho  for  a  supply.  After  his 
arrival  at  Prague  he  was  supported  entirely  by  the 
bounty  of  his  friend,  and  he  endeavoured  to  make 
some  return  for  this  kindness  by  attacking  in  a 
controversial  pamphlet  two  of  the  scientific  oppo- 
nents of  Tycho.  Kepler's  total  dependance  on  the 
generosity  of  his  friend  had  made  him  suspicious 
of  his  sincerity.  He  imagined  that  Tycho  had  not 
freely  communicated  to  him  all  his  observations, 
and  that  he  had  not  been  sufficiently  liberal  in  sup- 
plying  his  wife  with  money  in  his  absence.  While 
absent  a  second  time  from  Prague,  and  influenced  by 
these  feelings,  he  addressed  a  violent  letter  to  Tycho 
filled  with  reproaches.  On  the  plea  of  being  oc- 
cupied with  his  daughter's  marriage,  Tycho  re- 
quested Ericksen,  one  of  his  assistants,  to  reply  to 


JOHN   KEPLER.  197 

Kepler's  letter  ;  and  he  did  this  with  so  much  ef- 
fect, that  Kepler  saw  his  mistake,  and  in  the  no- 
blest and  most  generous  manner  supplicated  the 
forgiveness  of  his  friend.  Tycho  exhibited  the 
same  good  feeling  ;  and  the  kindness  of  Hoffman, 
president  of  the  States  of  Styria,  completed  the  rec- 
onciliation of  these  two  astronomers. 

On  his  return  to  Prague  in  1601,  he  was  pre- 
sented by  Tycho  to  the  emperor,  who  conferred 
upon  him  the  title  of  imperial  mathematician,  on 
the  condition  that  he  would  assist  Tycho  in  his  cal- 
culations. This  connexion  was  peculiarly  valua- 
ble to  Kepler,  as  the  observations  of  his  colleague 
were  the  only  ones  made  in  the  world  which  could 
enable  him  to  carry  on  his  own  theoretical  inqui- 
ries.  These  two  astronomers  now  undertook  to 
compute,  from  Tycho's  observations,  a  new  set  of 
astronomical  tables,  to  be  called  the  Rudolphine 
Tables,  in  honour  of  the  emperor.  This  scheme 
flattered  the  vanity  of  their  master,  and  he  pledged 
himself  to  pay  all  the  expenses  of  the  work.  Lon- 
gomontanus,  Tycho's  principal  assistant,  took  upon 
himself  the  labour  of  arranging  and  discussing  the 
observations  on  the  stars,  while  Kepler  devoted 
himself  to  the  more  congenial  task  of  examining 
those  on  the  planet  Mars,  with  which  Tycho  was 
at  that  time  particularly  occupied.  The  appoint- 
ment of  Longomontanus  to  a  professorship  in  Den- 
R2 


198  JOHN   KEPLER. 

mark,  and  the  death  of  Tycho  in  October,  1601, 
put  a  stop  to  these  important  schemes. 

Kepler  succeeded  Tycho  as  principal  mathema- 
tician to  the  emperor,  and  was  provided  with  a 
handsome  salary,  which  was  partly  charged  on  the 
imperial  treasury,  and  partly  on  the  States  of  Si- 
lesia, and  the  first  instalment  of  which  was  to  be 
paid  in  March,  1602.  The  generosity  of  the  em. 
peror  did  not  fail  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  ignorant 
individuals,  who  were  not  aware  of  the  value  of 
science  to  the  state ;  but  the  increasing  fame  of 
Kepler,  and  the  valuable  works  which  he  published, 
soon  silenced  their  opposition. 

In  September,  1604,  astronomers  were  surprised 
with  the  appearance  of  a  new  star  in  the  foot  of 
Serpentarius.  It  was  not  seen  before  the  29th  of 
September,  and  Mo3stlin  informs  us  that,  on  account 
of  clouds,  he  did  not  obtain  a  good  view  of  it  till 
the  6th  of  October.  Like  that  of  1572,*  it  at  first 
surpassed  Jupiter  in  brightness,  and  rivalled  even 
Venus  ;  but  it  afterward  became  as  small  as  Regu- 
lus  and  as  dull  as  Saturn,  and  disappeared  at  the 
end  of  a  few  months.  It  constantly  changed  its 
colour,  and  was  at  first  tawny,  then  yellow,  then 
purple  and  red,  and  often  white  at  great  altitudes. 
It  had  no  parallax,  and  therefore  was  a  fixed  star. 
Kepler  wrote  a  short  account  of  this  remarkable 
*  See  the  Life  of  Tycho,  page  129. 


JOHN    KEPLER.  199 

body,  and  maintained  its  superiority  to  that  of  1572, 
as  this  last  came  in  an  ordinary  year,  while  the 
other  appeared  in  the  year  of  the  fiery  trigon,  or 
that  in  which  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Mars  are  in  the 
three  fiery  signs,  Aries,  Leo,  and  Sagittarius,  an 
event  which  occurs  only  every  800  years.  After 
discussing  a  great  variety  of  topics  but  little  con- 
nected  with  his  subject,  and  in  a  style  of  absurd 
jocularity,  he  attacks  the  opinions  of  the  Epicu- 
reans, that  the  star  was  a  fortuitous  concourse  of 
atoms,  in  the  following  remarkable  paragraph, 
which  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  work  :  "  When  I 
was  a  youth,  with  plenty  of  idle  time  on  my  hands, 
I  was  much  taken  with  the  vanity,  of  which  some 
grown  men  are  not  ashamed,  of  making  anagrams, 
by  transposing  the  letters  of  my  name,  written  in 
Latin.  Out  of  Joannes  Keplerus  came  Serpens  in 
Akuleo  (a  serpent  in  his  sting) ;  but  not  being  sat- 
isfied with  the  meaning  of  these  words,  and  being 
unable  to  make  another,  I  trusted  the  thing  to 
chance,  and  taking  out  of  a  pack  of  playing-cards 
as  many  as  there  were  letters  in  the  name,  I  wrote 
one  upon  each,  and  then  began  to  shuffle  them,  and 
at  each  shuffle  to  read  them  in  the  order  they 
came,  to  see  if  any  meaning  came  of  it.  Now 
may  all  the  Epicurean  gods  and  goddesses  con- 
found this  same  chance,  which,  although  I  have 
spent  a  good  deal  of  time  over  it,  never  showed 


200  JOHN    KEPLER. 

me  anything  like  sense  even  from  a  distance.  So- 
I  gave  up  my  cards  to  the  Epicurean  eternity,  to 
be  carried  away  into  infinity,  and  it  is  said  they 
are  still  flying  about  there  in  the  utmost  confusion 
among  the  atoms,  and  have  never  yet  come  to  any 
meaning.  I  will  tell  those  disputants,  my  oppo- 
nents, not  my  own  opinion,  but  my  wife's.  Yes- 
terday, when  weary  with  writing,  and  my  mind 
quite  dusty  with  considering  these  atoms,  I  was 
called  to  supper,  and  a  salad  I  had  asked  for  was 
set  before  me.  *  It  seems,  then,'  said  I,  aloud,  *  that 
if  pewter  dishes,  leaves  of  lettuce,  grains  of  salt, 
drops  of  water,  vinegar,  and  oil,  and  slices  of  egg, 
had  been  flying  about  in  the  air  from  all  eternity, 
it  might  at  last  happen  by  chance  that  there  would 
come  a  salad.'  *  Yes,'  says  my  wife,  *  but  not  so 
nice  and  well-dressed  as  this  of  mine  is.' " 


JOHN   KEPLER.  201 


CHAPTER  II. 

Kepler's  pecuniary  Embarrassments. — His  Inquiries  respect- 
ing the  Law  of  Refraction. — His  Supplement  to  Vitellio. 
— His  Researches  on  Vision. — His  Treatise  on  Dioptrics. 
— His  Commentaries  on  Mars. — He  discovers  that  the  Or- 
bit of  Mars  is  an  Ellipse,  with  the  Sun  in  one  Focus,  and 
extends  the  Discovery  to  all  the  other  Planets. — He  estab- 
lishes the  two  first  Laws  of  Physical  Astronomy. — His 
Family  Distresses. — Death  of  his  Wife. — He  is  appointed 
Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Linz. — His  Method  of  choos- 
ing a  second  Wife. — Her  Character,  as  given  by  himself. 
— Origin  of  his  Treatise  on  Gauging. — He  goes  to  Ratis- 
bon  to  give  his  Opinion  to  the  Diet  on  the  Change  of  Style. 
— He  refuses  the  Mathematical  Chair  at  Bologna. 

ALTHOUGH  Kepler  now  filled  one  of  the  most 
honourable  situations  to  which  a  philosopher  could 
aspire,  and  possessed  a  large  salary  fitted  to  sup- 
ply his  most  reasonable  wants,  yet,  as  the  imperial 
treasury  was  drained  by  the  demands  of  an  expen- 
sive war,  his  salary  was  always  in  arrear.  Owing 
to  this  cause  he  was  constantly  involved  in  pecu- 
niary difficulties,  and,  as  he  himself  described  his 
situation,  he  was  perpetually  begging  his  bread 
from  the  emperor  at  Prague.  His  increasing  fam. 
ily  rendered  the  want  of  money  still  more  distress- 


202  JOHN    KEPLER. 

ing,  and  he  was  driven  to  the  painful  alternative  of 
drawing  his  income  from  casting  nativities.  From 
the  same  cause  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  plan 
of  publishing  the  Rudolphine  Tables,  and  to  devote 
himself  to  works  of  a  less  expensive  kind,  and 
which  were  more  likely  to  yield  some  pecuniary 
advantages. 

In  spite  of  these  embarrassments,  and  the  occu- 
pation of  his  time  in  the  practice  of  astrology,  Kep- 
ler found  leisure  for  his  favourite  pursuits.  No 
adverse  circumstances  were  capable  of  extinguish- 
ing his  scientific  ardour,  and  whenever  he  directed 
his  vigorous  mind  to  the  investigation  of  phenom- 
ena, he  never  failed  to  obtain  interesting  and  origi- 
nal results.  Since  the  death  of  Tycho  his  atten- 
tion had  been  much  occupied  with  the  subject  of 
refraction  and  vision,  and  in  1606  he  published 
the  result  of  his  researches  in  a  work  entitled  "  A 
Supplement  to  Vitellio,  in  which  the  optical  part  ot 
astronomy  is  treated,  but  chiefly  on  the  artificial 
observation  and  estimation  of  diameters,  and  of  the 
eclipses  of  the  Sun  and  Moon."  Astronomers  had 
long  been  perplexed  with  the  refraction  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  so  little  was  known  of  the  general 
subject,  as  well  as  of  this  branch  of  it,  that  Tycho 
believed  the  refraction  of  the  atmosphere  to  cease 
at  45°  of  altitude.  Even  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century,  Claudius  Ptolemy  of  Alexandrea 


JOHN   KEPLER.  203 

had  unravelled  its  principal  mysteries,  and  had 
given  in  his  Optics  a  theory  of  astronomical  refrac- 
tion more  complete  than  that  of  any  astronomer 
before  the  time  of  Cassini  $*  but  the  MSS.  had  un- 
fortunately been  mislaid,  and  Alhazen,  and  Vitel- 
lio,  and  Kepler  were  obliged  to  take  up  the  subject 
from  its  commencement.  Ptolemy  had  not  only 
determined  that  the  refraction  of  the  atmosphere 
had  gradually  increased  from  the  zenith  to  the  ho- 
rizon, but  he  had  measured  with  singular  accuracy 
the  angles  of  refraction  for  water  and  glass,  from 
a  perpendicular  incidence  to  a  horizontal  one. 

Kepler  treated  this  branch  of  science  in  his  own 
peculiar  way,  "  hunting  down,"  as  he  expressed  it, 
every  hypothesis  which  his  fertile  imagination  had 
successively  presented  to  him.  In  his  various  at- 
tempts to  discover  the  law  of  refraction,  or  a  meas- 
ure of  it,  as  varying  with  the  density  of  the  body 
and  the  angle  of  incidence  of  the  light,  he  was  near- 
er the  goal  in  his  first  speculation  than  in  any  of 
the  rest ;  and  he  seems  to  have  failed  in  conse- 
quence of  his  not  separating  the  question  as  it  re- 
lated to'  density  from  the  question  as  it  related  to 
incidence.  "I  did  not  leave  untried,"  says  he, 
"  whether,  by  assuming  a  horizontal  refraction  ac- 
cording to  the  density  of  the  medium,  the  rest 
would  correspond  to  the  sines  of  the  distances  from 
*  Cassini  was  born  in  1625.  and  died  in  1712. 


204  JOHN   KEPLER. 

a  vertical  direction,  but  calculation  proved  that  it 
was  not  so  :  and,  indeed,  there  was  no  occasion  to 
have  tried  it,  for  thus  the  refraction  would  increase 
according  to  the  same  law  in  all  mediums,  which  is 
contradicted  by  experiment." 

Although  completely  foiled  in  his  search  after 
the  law  of  refraction,  which  was  subsequently  dis- 
covered by  Willebrord  Snell,  and  some  time  after- 
ward  by  James  Gregory,  he  was  singularly  suc- 
cessful in  his  inquiries  respecting  vision.  Regard- 
ing the  eye  as  analogous  in  its  structure  with  the 
camera  obscura  of  Baptista  Porta,  he  discovered 
that  the  images  of  external  objects  were  painted  in 
an  inverted  position  on  the  retina,  by  the  union  of 
the  pencils  of  rays  which  issued  from  every  point 
of  the  object.  He  ascribed  an  erect  vision  to  an 
operation  of  the  mind,  by  which  it  traces  the  rays 
back  to  the  pupil,  where  they  cross  one  another, 
and  thus  refers  the  lower  parts  of  the  image  to  the 
higher  parts  of  the  object.  He  also  explained  the 
cause  of  long-sighted  and  short-sighted  vision,  and 
showed  how  convex  and  concave  lenses  enabled 
those  who  possessed  these  peculiarities  of  vision  to 
see  distinctly,  by  accurately  converging  the  pencils 
of  rays  to  a  focus  on  the  retina.  Kepler  likewise 
observed  the  power  of  accommodating  the  eye  to 
different  distances,  and  he  ascribed  it  to  the  con- 
traction of  the  ciliary  processes,  which  drew  the 


JOHN   KEPLER.  205 

sides  of  the  eyeball  towards  the  crystalline  lens,  and 
thus  elongated  the  eye  so  as  to  produce  an  adjust, 
ment  of  it  for  near  objects.  Kepler  wisely  declined 
to  inquire  into  the  way  in  which  the  mind  perceives 
the  images  painted  on  the  retina,  and  he  blames 
Vitellio  for  attempting  to  determine  a  question 
which  he  considered  as  not  belonging  to  optics. 

The  work  of  Kepler  now  under  consideration 
contains  the  method  of  calculating  eclipses  which 
is  in  use  at  the  present  day. 

The  only  other  optical  treatise  written  by  Kepler 
was  his  Dioptrics,  with  an  appendix  on  the  use  of 
optics  in  philosophy.  This  admirable  work,  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  science,  was  published  at 
Augsburg  in  1611,  and  reprinted  at  London  in 
1653.  Although  Maurolycus  had  made  some  slight 
progress  in  studying  the  passage  of  light  through 
different  media,  yet  it  is.  to  Kepler  that  we  owe  the 
methods  of  tracing  the  progress  of  rays  through 
transparent  bodies  with  convex  and  concave  surfa- 
ces, and  of  determining  the  foci  of  lenses,  and  of 
the  relative  positions  of  the  images  which  they  form, 
and  the  objects  from  which  the  rays  proceed.  He 
was  thus  led  to  explain  the  rationale  of  the  telescope, 
and  to  invent  the  astronomical  telescope,  which  con- 
sists of  two  convex  lenses,  by  which  objects  are  seen 
inverted.  Kepler  also  discovered  the  important 
fact  that  spherical  surfaces  were  not  capable  of 
3 


206  JOHN   KEPLER. 

converging  rays  to  a  single  focus,  and  he  conjee- 
tured,  what  Descartes  afterward  proved,  that  this 
property  might  be  possessed  by  lenses  having  the 
figure  of  some  of  the  sections  of  the  cone.  The 
total  reflection  of  light  at  the  second  surface  of 
bodies  was  likewise  studied  by  Kepler,  and  he  de- 
termined that  the  total  reflection  commenced  when 
the  angle  of  incidence  was  equal  to' the  angle  of  re- 
fraction, which  corresponded  to  an  incidence  of  90. 
Two  years  before  the  publication  of  his  Dioptrics, 
viz.,  in  1609,  Kepler  had  given  to  the  world  his  great 
work,  entitled  "  The  New  Astronomy,  or  Comment- 
aries on  the  Motions  of  Mars."  The  discoveries 
which  this  volume  records  form  the  basis  of  physi- 
cal astronomy.  The  inquiries  by  which  he  was  led 
to  them  began  in  that  memorable  year  1601,  when 
he  became  the  colleague  or  assistant  of  Tycho. 
The  powers  of  original  genius  were  then  for  the 
first  time  associated  with  inventive  skill  and  patient 
observation  ;  and  though  the  astronomical  data  pro- 
vided by  Tycho  were  sure  of  finding  their  applica- 
tion in  some  future  age,  yet  without  them  Kepler's 
speculations  would  have  been  vain,  and  the  laws 
which  they  enabled  him  to  determine  would  have 
adorned  the  history  of  another  century.  Having 
tried  in  vain  to  represent  the  motion  of  Mars  by  a 
uniform  motion  in  a  circular  orbit,  and  by  the  cy- 
cles and  epicycles  with  which  Copernicus  had  en- 


JOHN    KEPLER.  207 

deavoured  to  explain  the  planetary  inequalities, 
Kepler  was  led,  after  many  fruitless  speculations,* 
to  suppose  the  orbit  of  the  planet  to  be  oval ;  and, 
from  his  knowledge  of  the  conic  sections,  he  after- 
ward determined  it  to  be  an  ellipse,  with  the  sun 
placed  in  one  of  its  foci.  He  then  ascertained  the 
dimensions  of  the  orbit ;  and,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  times  employed  by  the  planet  to  complete  a 
whole  revolution  or  any  part  of  one,  he  discovered 
that  the  time  in  which  Mars  describes  any  arches 
of  his  elliptic  orbit  were  always  to  one  another  as 
the  areas  contained  by  lines  drawn  from  the  focus 
or  the  centre  of  the  sun  to  the  extremities  of  the 
respective  arches ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  ra- 
dius vector,  or  the  line  joining  the  Sun  and  Mars, 
described  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  By  examin- 
ing the  inequalities  of  the  other  p'lanets,  he  found 
that  they  all  moved  in  elliptic  orbits,  and  that  the 
radius  vector  of  each  described  areas  proportional 
to  the  times.  These  two  great  results  are  known 
by  the  name  of  the  first  and  second  laws  of  Kepler. 
The  third  law,  or  that  which  relates  to  the  connex. 
ion  between  the  periodic  times  and  the  distances  of 
the  planets,  was  not  discovered  till  a  later  period  of 
his  life. 

*  An  interesting  account  of  the  steps  by  which  Kepler  pro- 
ceeded will  be  found  in  Mr.  Drinkwater  Bethune's  admirable 
Life  of  Kepler,  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge. 


208  JOHN    KEPLER. 

When  Kepler  presented  to  Rudolph  the  volume 
which  contained  these  fine  discoveries,  he  remind- 
ed him  jocularly  of  his  requiring  the  sinews  of  war 
to  make  similar  attacks  upon  the  other  planets. 
The  emperor,  however,  had  more  formidable  en- 
emies than  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and  from  the  treas- 
ury, which  war  had  exhausted,  he  found  it  difficult 
to  supply  the  wants  of  science.  While  Kepler  was 
thus  involved  in  the  miseries  of  poverty,  misfor- 
tunes of  every  kind  filled  up  the  cup  of  his  adver- 
sity. His  wife,  who  had  long  been  the  victim  of  low 
spirits,  was  seized,  towards  the  end  of  1610,  with 
fever,  epilepsy,  and  phrenitis,  and  before  she  had 
completely  recovered  all  his  three  children  were 
simultaneously  attacked  with  the  smallpox.  His 
favourite  son  fell  a  victim  to  this  malady,  and  at 
the  same  time  Prague  was  partially  occupied  by  the 
troops  of  Leopold.  The  part  of  the  city  where 
Kepler  resided  was  harassed  by  the  Bohemian  lev- 
ies, and,  to  crown  this  list  of  evils,  the  Austrian 
troops  introduced  the  plague  into  the  city. 

Some  time  afterward  Kepler  set  out  for  Austria, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  the  professorship  of 
mathematics  at  Linz,  which  was  now  vacant ;  but, 
upon  his  return  in  June,  he  found  his  wife  in  a  de- 
cline,  brought  on  by  grief  for  the  loss  of  her  son, 
and  she  was  some  time  afterward  seized  with  an 
infectious  fever,  of  which  she  died. 


JOHN    KEPLER.  209 

The  Emperor  Rudolph  was  unwilling  to  allow 
Kepler  to  quit  Prague.  He  encouraged  him  with 
hopes  that  the  arrears  of  his  salary  would  be  paid 
from  Saxony  ;  but  these  hopes  were  fallacious,  and 
it  was  not  till  the  death  of  Rudolph,  in  1612,  that 
Kepler  was  freed  from  these  distressing  embarrass- 
ments. 

On  the  accession  of  Mathias,  Rudolph's  brother, 
Kepler  was  reappointed  imperial  mathematician, 
and  was  allowed  to  accept  the  professorship  at 
Linz.  His  family  now  consisted  of  two  children,  a 
daughter,  Susannah,  born  in  1602,  and  a  son,  Louis, 
born  in  1607.  His  own  time  was  so  completely  oc- 
cupied by  his  new  professorial  duties,  as  well  as  by 
his  private  studies,  that  he  found  it  necessary  to 
seek  another  parent  for  his  children.  For  this 
purpose  he  gave  a  commission  to  his  friends  to  look 
out  for  him  a  suitable  wife,  and  in  a  long  and  jocu- 
lar letter  to  Baron  Strahlendorf  he  has  given  an 
amusing  account  of  the  different  negotiations  which 
preceded  his  marriage.  The  substance  of  this  let- 
ter is  so  well  given  by  Mr.  Drinkwater  Bethune, 
that  we  shall  follow  his  account  of  it. 

The  first  of  the  eleven  ladies  among  whom  his 
inclinations  wavered  "  was  a  widow,  an  intimate 
friend  of  his  first  wife,  and  who,  on  many  accounts, 
appeared  a  most  eligible  match.  At  first,"  says 
Kepler, "  she  seemed  favourably  inclined  to  the  pro- 
S2 


210  JOHN   KEPLER. 

posal  ;  it  is  certain  that  she  took  time  to  consider 
it,  but  at  last  she  very  quietly  excused  herself."  It 
must  have  been  from  a  recollection  of  this  lady's 
good  qualities  that  Kepler  was  induced  to  make  his 
offer ;  for  we  learn  rather  unexpectedly,  after  being 
informed  of  her  decision,  that  when  he  soon  after- 
ward paid  his  respects  to  her,  it  was  the  first  time 
that  he  had  seen  her  during  the  last  six  years  ;  and 
he  found,  to  his  great  relief,  that  "  there  was  no 
'single  pleasing  part  about  her."  The  truth  seems 
to  be,  that  he  was  nettled  by  her  answer  ;  and  he  is 
at  greater  pains  than  appears  necessary,  consider- 
ing this  last  discovery,  to  determine  why  she  would 
not  accept  his  offered  hand.  Among  other  reasons 
he  suggested  her  children,  among  whom  were  two 
marriageable  daughters  ;  and  it  is  diverting  after- 
ward to  find  them  also  in  the  catalogue  which  Kep. 
ler  appeared  to  be  making  of  all  his  female  ac- 
quaintance. *  *  *  Of  the  other  ladies,  one 
was  too  old ;  another  in  bad  health ;  another  too 
proud  of  her  birth  and  quarterings ;  a  fourth  had 
learned  nothing  but  showy  accomplishments,  "  not 
at  all  suitable  to  the  sort  of  life  she  would  have  to 
lead  with  me ;"  another  grew  impatient,  and  mar- 
ried  a  more  decided  admirer  while  he  was  hesita- 
ting. "  The  mischief,"  says  he,  "  in  all  these  at- 
tachments was,  that  while  I  was  delaying,  com- 
paring and  balancing  conflicting  reasons,  every 


JOHN   KEPLER.  211 

day  saw  me  inflamed  with  a  new  passion."  By 
the  time  he  reached  the  8th,  he  found  his  match 
in  this  respect.  "  Fortune  at  length  has  avenged 
herself  on  my  doubtful  inclinations.  At  first  she 
was  quite  complying,  and  her  friends  also ;  present- 
ly, whether  she  did  or  did  not  consent,  not  only  I, 
but  she  herself  did  not  know.  After  the  lapse  of  a 
few  days  came  a  renewed  promise,  which,  however, 
had  to  be  confirmed  a  third  time ;  and  four  days  af- 
ter that  she  again  repeated  her  confirmation,  and 
begged  to  be  excused  from  it.  Upon  this  I  gave  her 
up,  and  this  time  all  my  counsellors  were  of  one 
opinion."  This  was  the  longest  courtship  in  the 
list,  having  lasted  three  months ;  and,  quite  disheart- 
ened by  its  bad  success,  Kepler's  next  attempt  was 
of  a  more  timid  complexion.  His  advances  to  No. 
9  were  made  by  confiding  to  her  the  whole  story  of 
his  recent  disappointment,  prudently  determining  to 
be  guided  in  his  behaviour  by  observing  whether 
the  treatment  he  had  experienced  met  with  a  proper 
degree  of  sympathy.  Apparently  the  experiment 
did  not  succeed  ;  and,  almost  reduced  to  despair, 
Kepler  betook  himself  to  the  advice  of  a  friend,  who 
had  for  some  time  past  complained  that  she  was  not 
consulted  in  this  difficult  negotiation.  When  she 
produced  No.  10  and  the  first  visit  was  paid,  the  re- 
port upon  her  was  as  follows  :  "  She  has  undoubt- 
edly a  good  fortune,  is  of  good  family,  and  of  eco- 


212  JOHN   KEPLER. 

nomical  habits  ;  but  her  physiognomy  is  most  hor- 
ribly ugly ;  she  would  be  stared  at  in  the  streets,  not 
to  mention  the  striking  disproportion  in  our  figures. 
I  am  lank,  lean,  and  spare,  she  short  and  thick ; 
in  a  family  notorious  for  fulness,  she  is  considered 
superfluously  fat."  The  only  objection  to  No.  11 
seems  to  have  been  her  excessive  youth ;  and  when 
this  treaty  was  broken  off  on  that  account,  Kepler 
turned  his  back  upon  all  his  advisers,  and  chose  for 
himself  one  who  had  figured  as  No.  5  in  the  list,  to 
whom  he  professes  to  have  felt  attached  throughout, 
but  from  whom  the  representations  of  his  friends 
had  hitherto  detained  him,  probably  on  account  of 
her  humble  station. 

The  following  is  Kepler's  summary  of  her  char- 
acter  :  "  Her  name  is  Susannah,  the  daughter  of 
John  Reuthinger  and  Barbara,  citizens  of  the  town 
of  Eferdingen.  The  father  was  by  trade  a  cabin- 
et-maker, but  both  her  parents  are  dead.  She  has 
received  an  education  well  worth  the  largest  dow. 
ry,  by  favour  of  the  Lady  of  Stahrenberg,  the 
strictness  of  whose  household  is  famous  throughout 
the  province.  Her  person  and  manners  are  suit- 
able to  mine  :  no  pride,  no  extravagance.  She  can 
bear  to  work  ;  she  has  a  tolerable  knowledge  how 
to  manage  a  family ;  middle-aged,  and  of  a  dispo- 
sition and  capability  to  acquire  what  she  still  wants. 
Her  I  shall  marry,  by  favour  of  the  noble  Baron  of 


JOHN  KEPLER.  213 

Stahrenberg,  at  12  o'clock  on  the  30th  of  next  Oc- 
tober, with  all  Eferdingen  assembled  to  meet  us, 
and  we  shall  eat  the  marriage-dinner  at  Maurice's, 
at  the  Golden  Lion."* 

Kepler's  marriage  seems  to  have  taken  place  at 
the  time  here  mentioned  ;  for,  in  his  book  on  gau- 
ging, published  at  Linz  in  1615,  he  informs  us  that 
he  took  home  his  new  wife  in  November,  on  which 
occasion  he  found  it  necessary  to  stock  his  cellar 
with  a  few  casks  of  wine.  When  the  wine-mer- 
chant came  to  measure  the  casks,  Kepler  objected 
to  his  method,  as  he  made  no  allowance  for  the  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  the  bulging  parts  of  the  cask.  From 
this  accident  Kepler  was  led  to  study  the  subject 
of  gauging,  and  to  write  the  book  which  we  have 
mentioned,  and  which  contains  the  earliest  speci- 
mens of  the  modern  analysis. 

About  this  period  Kepler  was  summoned  to  the 
Diet  at  Ratisbon,  to  give  his  opinion  on  the  reform- 
ation of  the  calendar,  and  he  published  a  short  es- 
say on  the  subject ;  but,  though  the  government 
did  not  scruple  to  avail  themselves  of  his  services, 
yet  his  pension  was  allowed  to  fall  in  arrear,  and, 
in  order  to  support  his  family,  he  was  obliged  to 
publish  an  almanac  suited  to  the  taste  of  the  age. 
"  In  order,"  says  he,  "  to  defray  the  expense  of  the 

*  Life  of  Kepler,  chap.  vi. 


214  JOHN   KEPLER. 

Ephemeris  for  two  years,*  I  have  been  obliged  to 
compose  a  vile  prophesying  almanac,  which  is  scarce- 
ly more  respectable  than  begging,  unless  from  its 
saving  the  emperor's  credit,  who  abandons  me  en- 
tirely, and  would  suffer  me  to  perish  with  hunger." 
Although  Kepler's  residence  at  Linz  was  render- 
ed uncomfortable  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  had 
excommunicated  him  on  account  of  his  refusing  to 
subscribe  to  some  opinions  respecting  the  ubiquity 
of  our  Saviour,  or,  as  others  maintain,  on  account 
of  some  opinions  which  he  had  expressed  respect, 
ing  transubstantiation,  yet  he  refused  in  1617  to 
accept  of  an  invitation  to  fill  the  mathematical 
chair  at  Bologna.  The  prospect  of  his  fortune 
being  bettered  by  such  a  change  could  not  recon- 
cile him  to  live  in  a  country  where  his  freedom  of 
speech  and  manners  might  expose  him  to  suspicion ; 
and  he  accordingly  declined,  in  the  most  respectful 
manner,  the  offer  which  was  made  him. 

*  These  Ephemerides,  from  1617  to  1620,  were  published 
at  Linz  in  1616.  The  one  for  1620  was  dedicated  to  Baron 
Napier,  of  Merchiston. 


J..  . 


JOHN   KEPLER.  215 


CHAPTER  III. 

Kepler's  continued  Embarrassments. — Death  of  Mathias. — 
Liberality  of  Ferdinand. — Kepler's  "  Harmonies  of  the 
World." — The  Epitome  of  the  Copernican  Astronomy.-^ 
It  is  prohibited  by  the  Inquisition.— -Sir  Henry  Wotton,  the 
British  Ambassador,  invites  Kepler  to  England. — He  de- 
clines the  Invitation. — Neglect  of  Genius  by  the  English 
Government. — Trial  of  Kepler's  Mother. — Her  final  Ac- 
quittal, and  Death  at  the  Age  of  seventy-five. — The  States 
of  Styria  burn  publicly  Kepler's  Calendar. — He  receives 
his  Arrears  of  Salary  from  Ferdinand. — The  Rudolphine 
Tables  published  in  1628. — He  receives  a  gold  Chain  from 
the  Grand- duke  of  Tuscany. — He  is  patronised  by  the  Duke 
of  Friedland. — He  removes  to  Sagan,  in  Silesia. — Is  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Rostoch. — Goes  to 
Ratisbon  to  receive  his  Arrears. — His  Death,  Funeral,  and 
Epitaph. — Monument  erected  to  his  Memory  in  1803.— 
His  Family. — His  posthumous  Volume,  entitled  "  The 
Dream,  or  Lunar  Astronomy." 

KEPLER  was  kept  in  a  state  of  constant  anxiety 
from  the  delay  in  the  government  to  pay  up  the  ar- 
rears of  his  pension,  while  their  repeated  promises 
prevented  him  from  accepting  of  other  employ, 
ments.  He  had  hoped  that  the  affair  of  the  Bo- 
lognese  chair  would  rouse  the  imperial  treasury  to 
a  sense  of  its  duty,  and  enable  him  to  publish  the 


216  JOHN    KEPLER. 

Rudolphine  Tables  ;  that  great  work  which  he 
owed  to  the  memory  both  of  Tycho  and  of  Rudolph. 
But,  though  he  was  disappointed  in  this  expectation, 
an  event  now  occurred  which  at  least  held  out  the 
prospect  of  a  favourable  change  in  his  circumstan- 
ces. The  Emperor  Mathias  died  in  1619,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Ferdinand  III.,  who  not  only  con- 
tinued him  in  the  situation  of  his  principal  mathe- 
matician with  his  former  pension,  but  promised  to 
pay  up  the  arrears  of  it,  and  to  furnish  the  means 
for  publishing  the  Rudolphine  Tables. 

The  year  1619,  so  favourable  to  Kepler's  pros- 
pects in  life,  was  distinguished  also  by  the  publica- 
tion at  Linz  of  one  of  his  most  remarkable  produc- 
tions, entitled  "  The  Harmonies  of  the  World." 
It  is  dedicated  to  James  I.  of  England,  and  will  be 
forever  memorable  in  the  history  of  science,  as 
containing  the  celebrated  law  that  the  squares  of 
the  periodic  times  of  the  planets  are  to  one  another 
as  the  cubes  of  their  distances.  This  singular  vol- 
ume, which  is  marked  with  all  the  peculiarities 
which  distinguish  his  Cosmographical  Mystery,  is 
divided  into  five  books.  The  first  two  books  are 
principally  geometrical,  and  relate  to  regular  poly- 
gons inscribed  in  a  circle ;  the  third  book  is  a 
treatise  on  music,  in  which  musical  proportions  are 
derived  from  figures  ;  the  fourth  book  is  astrologi- 
cal, and  treats  of  the  harmony  of  rays  emanating 


JOHN   KEPLER.  217 

on  the  earth  from  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  on  their 
influence  over  the  sublunary  or  human  soul ;  the 
fifth  book  is  astronomical  and  metaphysical,  and 
treats  of  the  exquisite  harmonies  of  the  celestial 
motions,  and  of  the  celebrated  third  law  of  the  uni- 
verse which  we  have  already  referred  to. 

This  law,  as  he  himself  informs  us,  first  entered 
his  mind  on  the.  8th  of  March,  1618  ;  but,  having 
made  an  erroneous  calculation,  he  was  obliged  to 
reject  it.  He  resumed  the  subject  on  the  15th  of 
May  ;  and,  having  discovered  his  former  error,  he 
recognised  with  transport  the  absolute  truth  of  a 
principle  which  for  seventeen  years  had  been  the 
object  of  his  incessant  labours.  The  delight  which 
this  grand  discovery  gave  him  had  no  bounds. 
" Nothing  holds  me,"  says  he  ;  "I  will  indulge  in 
my  sacred  fury  ;  I  will  triumph  over  mankind  by 
the  honest  confession  that  I  have  stolen  the  golden 
vases  of  the  Egyptians  to  build  up  a  tabernacle  for 
my  God,  far  away  from  the  confines  of  Egypt.  If 
you  forgive  me,  I  rejoice  ;  if  you  are  angry,  I  can 
bear  it.  The  die  is  cast ;  the  book  is  written,  to 
be  read  either  now  or  by  posterity,  I  care  not 
which.  It  may  well  wait  a  century  for  a  reader, 
as  God  has  waited  six  thousand  years  for  an  ob- 
server." 

About  the  same  time,  in  1618,  Kepler  published 
at  Linz  the  first  three  books  of  his  "  Epitome  of 
T 


218  JOHN    KEPLER. 

the  Copernican  Astronomy,"  of  which  the  fourth 
was  published  at  the  same  place  in  1622,  and  the 
Jifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  at  Frankfort  in  the  same 
year.  This  interesting  work  is  a  kind  of  summary 
of  all  his  astronomical  views,  drawn  up  in  the  form 
of  a  dialogue  for  the  perusal  of  general  readers, 
Immediately  after  its  publication  it  was  placed  by 
the  Inquisition  in  the  list  of  prohibited  books  ;  and 
the  moment  Kepler  learned  this  from  his  corre- 
spondent Remus,  he  was  thrown  into  great  alarm, 
and  requested  from  him  some  information  respect- 
ing  the  terms  and  consequences  of  the  censure 
which  was  then  pronounced  against  him.  He  was 
afraid  that  it  might  compromise  his  personal  safety 
if  he  went  to  Italy  ;  that  he  would  be  compelled  to 
retract  his  opinions ;  that  the  censure  might  ex- 
tend  to  Austria  ;  that  the  sale  of  his  work  would 
be  ruined ;  and  that  he  must  either  abandon  his 
country  or  his  opinions. 

The  reply  of  his  friend  Remus  calmed  his  agi- 
tated mind,  by  explaining  to  him  the  true  nature  of 
the  prohibition  ;  and  he  concluded  his  letter  with 
a  piece  of  seasonable  exhortation,  "  There  is  no 
ground  for  your  alarm  either  in  Italy  or  in  Austria, 
only  keep  yourself  within  bounds,  and  put  a  guard 
upon  your  own  passions." 

In  the  year  1620,  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  the  English 
ambassador  at  Venice,  paid  a  visit  to  Kepler  on 


JOHN    KEPLER.  219 

his  way  through  Germany.  It  does  not  appear 
whether  or  not  this  visit  was  paid  at  the  desire  of 
James  L,  to  whom  Kepler  had  dedicated  one  of  his 
works ;  but,  from  the  nature  of  the  communication 
which  was  made  to  him  by  the  ambassador,  there 
are  strong  reasons  to  think  that  this  was  the  case. 
Sir  Henry  Wotton  urged  Kepler  to  take  up  his  res- 
idence  in  England,  where  he  could  assure  him  of  a 
welcome  and  an  honourable  reception  ;  but,  not- 
withstanding the  pecuniary  difficulties  in  which  he 
was  then  involved,  he  did  not  accept  of  the  invita- 
tion. In  referring  to  this  offer  in  one  of  his  letters, 
written  a  year  after  it  was  made,  he  thus  balances 
the  difficulties  of  the  question  :  "The  fires  of  civil 
war,"  says  he,  "  are  raging  in  Germany.  Shall  I 
then  cross  the  sea,  whither  Wotton  invites  me  ?  I, 
a  German,  a  lover  of  firm  land,  who  dread  the  con- 
finement  of  an  island,  who  presage  its  dangers,  and 
must  drag  along  with  me  my  little  wife  and  flock 
of 'children  ?"  As  Kepler  seems  to  have  entertain- 
ed  no  doubt  of  his  being  well  provided  for  in  Eng- 
land, it  is  the  more  probable  that  the  British  sover- 
eign had  made  him  a  distinct  offer  through  his  am- 
bassador. A  welcome  and  an  honourable  recep- 
tion, in  the  ordinary  sense  of  these  terms,  could 
not  have  supplied  the  wants  of  a  starving  astrono- 
mer, who  was  called  upon  to  renounce  a  large 
though  an  ill-paid  salary  in  his  native  land ;  and 


220  JOHN    KEPLER. 

Kepler  had  experienced  too  deeply  the  faithlessness 
of  royal  pledges  to  trust  his  fortune  to  so  vague  an 
assurance  as  that  which  is  implied  in  the  language 
of  the  English  ambassador.  During  the  two  cen- 
turies  which  have  elapsed  since  this  invitation  was 
given  to  Kepler,  there  has  been  no  reign  during 
which  the  most  illustrious  foreigner  could  hope  for 
pecuniary  support,  either  from  the  sovereign  or  the 
government  of  England.  What  English  science 
has  never  been  able  to  command  for  her  indigenous 
talent,  was  not  likely  to  be  proffered  to  foreign 
merit.  The  generous  hearts  of  individual  Eng- 
lishmen, indeed,  are  always  open  to  the  claims  of 
intellectual  pre-eminence,  and  ever  ready  to  wel- 
come the  stranger  whom  it  adorns  ;  but  through 
the  frozen  lifeblood  of  a  British  minister  such  sym- 
pathies have  seldom  vibrated  ;  and,  amid  the  strug- 
gles of  faction  and  the  anxieties  of  personal  and 
family  ambition,  he  has  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the 
demands  of  genius,  whether  she  appeared  in  the 
humble  posture  of  a  suppliant,  or  in  the  prouder 
attitude  of  a  national  benefactor. 

If  the  imperial  mathematician,  therefore,  had  no 
other  assurance  of  a  comfortable  home  in  England 
than  that  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  he  acted  a  wise 
part  in  distrusting  it ;  and  we  rejoice  that  the  sa- 
cred name  of  Kepler  was  thus  withheld  from  the 
long  list  of  distinguished  characters  whom  England 
has  starved  and  dishonoured. 


JOHN   KEPLER.  221 

In  the  year  1620  Kepler  was  exposed  to  a  severe 
calamity,  which  continued  to  harass  him  for  some 
time.  His  mother,  Catharine  Kepler,  to  whose  pe- 
culiarities of  temper  we  have  already  referred,  was 
arrested  on  the  5th  of  April  upon  a  charge  of  a 
very  serious  nature.  One  of  her  friends  having 
some  years  before  suffered  a  miscarriage,  was  sub- 
sequently  attacked  with  violent  headaches,  and 
Catharine  was  charged  with  having  administered 
poison  to  her  friend.  This  accusation  was  indig- 
nantly repelled,  and  a  young  doctor  of  the  law 
whom  she  consulted  advised  her  to  raise  an  action 
against  her  calumniator.  From  professional  rea- 
sons, or  probably  pecuniary  ones,  this  zealous  prac- 
titioner continued  to  delay  the  lawsuit  for  five  years. 
The  judge  who  tried  it  happened  to  be  displaced, 
and  was  succeeded  by  another,  who  had  a  personal 
quarrel  with  the  prosecutor.  The  defender,  who 
was  aware  of  this  favourable  change  in  her  case, 
became  the  accuser,  and  in  July,  1620,  Catharine 
Kepler  was  sent  to  prison  and  condemned  to  the 
torture.  The  moment  this  event  reached  the  ears 
of  her  son,  he  quitted  Linz,  and  arrived  in  time  to 
save  her  from  punishment.  He  found  that  the  evi- 
dence upon  which  she  was  condemned  had  no  other 
foundation  but  her  own  intemperate  conduct ;  and, 
though  his  interference  was  successful,  yet  she  was 
not  finally  released  from  prison  till  the  4th  of  No- 
T2 


222  JOHN   KEPLER. 

vember,  1621.  Convinced  of  her  innocence,  this 
bold  woman,  now  in  the  79th  year  of  her  age,  rais- 
ed a  new  action  for  damages  against  her  opponent ; 
but  her  death  in  April,  1622,  put  an  end  to  her  own 
miseries,  as  well  as  to  the  anxiety  of  her  son. 
Among  the  virtues  of  this  singular  woman  we 
must  number  that  of  generosity.  Moestlin,  the  old 
preceptor  of  Kepler,  had  generously  declined  any 
compensation  for  his  instructions.  Kepler  never 
forgot  this  act  of  kindness,  and,  in  the  midst  of  his 
poverty,  he  found  means  to  send  to  Moestlin  a  hand- 
some silver  cup  in  token  of  his  gratitude.  In  ac- 
knowledging this  gift,  Moestlin  remarks,  "  Your 
mother  had  taken  it  into  her  head  that  you  owed  me 
200  florins,  and  had  brought  15  florins  and  a  chan- 
delier towards  reducing  the  debt,  which  I  advised 
her  to  send  to  you.  I  asked  her  to  stay  to  dinner, 
which  she  refused.  However,  we  hanselled  your 
cup,  as  you  know  she  is  of  a  thirsty  temperament." 
In  the  same  year  in  which  his  mother  was  arrest- 
ed,  the  States  of  Styria  ordered  all  the  copies  of 
the  Calendar  for  1624  to  be  publicly  burned.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason  for  supposing  that 
this  insult  proceeded  from  his  old  enemies  the  Cath- 
olics. They  would,  no  doubt,  take  an  active  share 
in  carrying  it  into  effect ;  but  it  would  appear  that 
his  former  patrons  were  affronted  at  Kepler's  giv- 
ing the  precedence  in  his  titlepage  to  the  States  of 


JOHN    KEPLER.  223 

Upper  Ens,  where  he  then  resided,  above  the  States 
of  Styria. 

In  1622  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  notwithstand- 
ing his  own  pecuniary  difficulties,  ordered  the  whole 
of  Kepler's  arrears  to  be  paid,  even  those  which 
had  been  due  by  Rudolph  and  Mathias;  and  so 
great  was  his  anxiety  to  have  the  Rudolphine  Ta- 
bles published,  that  he  supplied  the  means  for  their 
immediate  completion.  New  difficulties,  however, 
sprung  up  to  retard  still  longer  the  appearance  of 
this  most  important  work.  The  wars  of  the  Refor- 
mation, which  were  then  agitating  the  whole  of 
Germany,  interfered  with  every  peaceful  pursuit. 
The  library  of  Kepler  was  sealed  up  by  order  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  it  was  only  his  position  as  imperial 
mathematician  that  saved  him  from  personal  incon- 
venience. A  popular  insurrection  followed  in  the 
train  of  these  disasters.  The  peasantry  blockaded 
Linz,  the  place  of  Kepler's  residence,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  year  1627,  as  the  titlepage  bears,  or 
1628,  as  Kepler  elsewhere  states,  that  these  cele- 
brated Tables  were  given  to  the  world. 

The  Rudolphine  Tables  were  published  at  Ulm 
in  one  volume  folio.  These  Tables  were  calcula- 
ted by  Kepler  from  the  Observations  of  Tycho,  and 
are  founded  on  his  own  great  discovery  of  the  el- 
lipticity  of  the  planetary  orbits.  The  first  and  third 
parts  of  the  work  contain  logarithmic  and  other 


224  JOHN    KEPLER. 

auxiliary  tables,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  as- 
tronomical  calculations.  The  second  part  contains 
tables  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets ;  and  the  fourth 
a  catalogue  of  1000  stars,  as  determined  by  Tycho. 
A  nautical  map  is  prefixed  to  some  copies  of  the 
tables,  and  the  description  of  it  contains  the  first 
notice  of  the  method  of  determining  the  longitude 
by  means  of  occultations. 

A  short  time  after  the  publication  of  these  tables, 
the  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  instigated  no  doubt 
by  Galileo,  sent  Kepler  a  gold  chain  in  testimony 
of  his  approbation  of  the  great  service  which  he 
had  rendered  to  astronomy. 

About  this  time  Albert  Wallenstein,  duke  of 
Friedland,  a  great  patron  of  astrology,  and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  age,  made  the 
most  munificent  offers  to  Kepler,  and  invited  him  to 
take  up  his  residence  at  Sagan  in  Silesia.  The  re- 
ligious dissensions  which  agitated  Lin/.,  the  love  of 
tranquillity,  which  Kepler  had  so  little  enjoyed,  and 
the  publication  of  his  great  work,  induced  him  to 
accept  of  this  offer.  He  accordingly  removed  his 
family  from  Linz  to  Ratisbon  in  1629,  and  he  him- 
self  set  out  for  Prague,  with  the  double  object  of 
presenting  the  Rudolphine  Tables  to  the  emperor, 
and  of  soliciting  his  permission  to  go  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Duke  of  Friedland.  The  emperor  did 
not  hesitate  to  grant  this  request,  and  would  have 


JOHN    KEPLER.  225 

gladly  transferred  Kepler's  arrears,  as  well  as  him- 
self, to  the  charge  of  a  foreign  prince.  Kepler  ac- 
cordingly set  out  with  his  wife  and  family  for  Sa- 
gan,  where  he  arrived  in  1629.  The  Duke  Albert 
treated  him  with  liberality  and  distinction.  He 
supplied  him  with  an  assistant  for  his  calculations, 
and  also  with  a  printing  press  ;  and,  by  his  influ- 
ence with  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  he  obtained  for 
him  a  professorship  in  the  University  of  Rostoch. 

In  this  remote  situation  Kepler  found  it  extreme- 
ly difficult  to  obtain  payment  of  the  imperial  pen- 
sion which  he  still  retained.  The  arrears  had  ac- 
cumulated to  8000  crowns,  and  he  resolved  to  go 
to  the  Imperial  Assembly  at  Ratisbon  to  make  a 
final  effort  to  obtain  them.  His  attempts,  however, 
were  fruitless.  The  vexation  which  this  occasion- 
ed, and  the  great  fatigue  which  he  had  undergone, 
threw  him  into  a  violent  fever,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  cold,  and  to  have  been  accompanied 
with  an  irnposthume  in  his  brain,  occasioned  by  too 
much  study.  This  disease  baffled  the  skill  of  his 
physicians,  and  carried  him  off  on  the  5th  of  Novem- 
ber, O.  S.,  1630,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 

The  remains  of  this  great  man  were  interred  in 
St.  Peter's  Churchyard  at  Ratisbon,  and  the  follow, 
ing  inscription,  imbodying  an  epitaph  which  he  had 
written  for  himself,  was  engraven  on  his  tombstone : 


226  JOHN   KEPLER. 

IN  HOC  QUIESCIT  VIR  NOBILISSIMUS,  DOCTIS8IMU8  ET  CELE- 
BEBRIMU8  DOM.  JOHANNES  KfiPLERUS,  TR1UM  IMPERATORUM 

RUDOLPHI  II.,  MATHIJE,  ET  FERDINANDI   II.,  PER  ANNOS 

XXX.,  ANTEA  VERO  PROCERUM  SxYRI^E  AB  ANNO  1594  USQUB 
1600,  POSTEA  QCOQUE  ASTRIACORUM  ORDINUM  AB  ANNO  1612 
USQUE  AD  ANNUM  1628,  MATHEMAT1CUS  TOTI  ORBI  CHBISTIANI, 
PER  MONUMENTA  PUBL1CA  COGNITU8,  AB  OMN'IBUS  DOCTIS,  IN- 
TER PRINCIPES  ASTRONOMIC  NUMERATUS,  QUI  PROPRIA  MANU 

ASSIONATUM  POST  8E  REL1QUIT  TALE  EPITAPHIUM. 

Mensus  eram  coelos,  nunc  terrae  metior  umbras : 
Mens  coelestis  erat,  corporis  umbra  jacet. 
IN  CHRISTO  PIE  OBIIT  ANNO  SALUTIS  1630,  DIE  5  NOVBM- 
BRIS,  .&TATI8  SUJE  3EXAGESIMO. 

This  monument  was  not  long  preserved.  It  was 
destroyed  during  the  wars  which  desolated  Germa- 
ny, and  no  attempt  was  made  till  1786  to  mark 
with  honour  the  spot  which  contained  such  venera- 
ble remains.  This  attempt,  however,  failed,  and  it 
was  not  till  1803  that  this  great  duty  was  paid  to 
the  memory  of  Kepler,  by  the  Prince  Bishop  of 
Constance,  who  erected  a  handsome  monumental 
temple  near  the  place  of  his  interment,  and  in  the 
Botanical  Garden  of  the  city.  The  temple  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  sphere,  and  in  the  centre  is  a  bust  of 
Kepler  in  Carrara  marble. 

Kepler  left  behind  him  a  wife  and  seven  children : 
two  by  his  first  wife,  Susanna  and  Louis  ;  and 
three  sons  and  two  daughters  by  his  second  wife, 
viz.,  Sebald,  Cordelia,  Friedman,  Hildebert,  and 


JOHN    KEPLER.  227 

Anna  Maria.  The  eldest  of  these,  Susanna,  was 
married  a  few  months  before  her  father's  death  to 
Jacob  Bartschius,  his  pupil,  who  was  educated  as  a 
physician  ;  and  his  son  Louis  died  in  1663,  while 
practising  medicine  at  Konigsberg.  The  children 
by  his  second  wife  are  said  to  have  died  young. 
They  were  left  in  very  narrow  circumstances  ;  and 
though  24,000  florins  were  due  to  Kepler  by  the 
emperor,  yet  only  a  part  of  this  sum  was  received 
by  Susanna,  in  consequence  of  her  refusing  to  give 
up  Tycho's  Observations  till  the  debt  was  paid. 
Kepler  composed  a  little  work  entitled  "  The  Dream 
of  John  Kepler,  or  Lunar  Astronomy,"  the  object 
of  which  was  to  describe  the  phenomena  seen  from 
the  moon ;  but  he  died  while  he  and  Bartschius 
were  engaged  in  its  publication,  and  Bartschius 
having  resumed  the  task,  died  also  before  its  com- 
pletion.  Louis  Kepler  dreaded  to  meddle  with  a 
work  which  had  proved  so  fatal  to  his,  father  and 
his  brother-in-law,  but  this  superstitious  feeling  was 
overcome,  and  the  work  was  published  at  Frank- 
fort  in  1636. 


228  JOHN    KEPLER. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Number  of  Kepler's  published  Works. — His  numerous  Man- 
uscripts in  22  folio  Volumes. — Purchased  by  Hevelius,  and 
afterward  by  Hansch,  who  publishes  Kepler's  Life  and 
Correspondence  at  the  Expense  of  Charles  VI. — The  His- 
tory of  the  rest  of  his  Manuscripts,  which  are  deposited  in 
the  Library  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg. 
— General  Character  of  Kepler. — His  Candour  in  acknowl- 
edging his  Errors. — His  Moral  and  Religious  Character. — 
His  Astrological  Writings  and  Opinions  considered.— His 
Character  as  an  Astronomer  and  a  Philosopher. — The 
Splendour  of  his  Discoveries. — Account  of  his  Methods  of 
Investigating  Truth. 

ALTHOUGH  the  labours  of  Kepler  were  frequently 
interrupted  by  severe  and  long-continued  indisposi- 
tion, as  well  as  by  the  pecuniary  embarrassments 
in  which  he  was  constantly  involved,  yet  the  ardour 
and  power  of  his  mind  enabled  him  to  surmount  all 
the  difficulties  of  his  position.  Not  only  did  he 
bring  to  a  successful  completion  the  leading  inqui- 
ries which  he  had  begun,  but  he  found  leisure  for 
composing  an  immense  number  of  works  more  or 
less  connected  with  the  subject  of  his  studies.  Be- 
tween 1594,  when  he  published  his  Calendar  at 
Gratz,  and  1630,  the  year  of  his  death,  he  publish. 


JOHN    KEPLER.  229 

ed  no  fewer  than  thirty.three  separate  works  ;  and 
he  left  behind  him  twenty-two  volumes  of  manu. 
scripts,  seven  of  which  contain  his  epistolary  cor- 
respondence. 

The  celebrated  astronomer  Hevelius,  who  was  a 
contemporary  of  Louis  Kepler,  purchased  all  these 
manuscripts  from  Kepler's  representatives.  At 
the  death  of  Hevelius  they  were  bought  by  M. 
Gottlieb  Hansch,  a  zealous  mathematician,  who 
was  desirous  of  giving  them  to  the  world.  For 
this  purpose  he  issued  a  prospectus  in  1714  for 
publishing  them  by  subscription,  in  22  volumes  fo- 
lio ;  but  this  plan  having  failed,  he  was  introduced 
to  Charles  VI.,  who  liberally  obtained  for  him  1000 
ducats  to  defray  the  expense  of  the  publication, 
and  an  annual  pension  of  300  florins.  With  such 
encouragement,  Hansch  published  in  1718,  in  one 
volume  folio,  the  correspondence  of  Kepler,  enti 
tied  "  Epistola  ad  Joannem  Keplerum,  insertis  ad, 
easdem  responsionibus  Keplerianis,  quidquid  hacte- 
nus  reperiri  potuerunt,  opus  novum,  et  cum  Jo.  Kep- 
leri  vita." 

The  expenses  of  this  volume  unfortunately  ex- 
hausted the  1000  ducats  which  had  been  granted  by 
the  emperor,  and,  instead  of  being  able  to  publish 
the  rest  of  the  MSS.,  Hansch  was  under  the  neces- 
sity of  pledging  them  for  828  florins.  Under  these 
difficulties  he  addressed  himself  in  vain  to  the  cel- 
U 


230  JOHN  KEPLER. 

ebratcd  Wolfius,  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
and  to  other  bodies  that  were  likely  to  interest 
themselves  in  such  a  subject.  In  1761,  when  M. 
De  Murr,  of  Nuremberg,  was  in  London,  he  made 
great  exertions  to  obtain  the  MSS.,  and  Dr.  Brad- 
ley  is  said  to  have  been  on  the  eve  of  purchasing 
them.  The  competition  probably  raised  the  de- 
mands of  the  proprietor,  in  whose  hands  they  con- 
tinued for  many  years.  In  1773  they  were  offered 
for  4000  francs,  and  some  time  afterward  M.  De 
Murr  purchased  them  for  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  whose  library  they 
still  remain.  Euler,  Lexell,  and  Kraft  undertook 
the  task  of  examining  them,  and  selecting  those 
that  were  best  fitted  for  publication,  but  we  believe 
that  no  steps  have  yet  been  taken  for  executing 
this  task,  nor  are  we  aware  that  science  would  de- 
rive any  advantage  from  its  completion. 

Although,  in  drawing  his  own  character,  Kepler 
describes  himself  as  "  troublesome  and  choleric  in 
politics  and  domestic  matters,"  yet  the  general 
events  of  his  life  indicate  a  more  peaceful  disposi- 
tion than  might  have  been  expected  from  the  pecu- 
liarities of  his  mind  and  the  ardour  of  his  temper, 
ament.  On  one  occasion,  indeed,  he  wrote  a  vio- 
lent and  reproachful  letter  to  Tycho,  who  had  giv- 
en him  no  just  ground  of  offence  ;  but  the  state  of 
Kepler's  health  at  that  moment,  and  the  necessitous 


JOHN    KEPLER.  231 

circumstances  in  which  he  had  been  placed,  present 
some  palliation  of  his  conduct.  But,  independent 
of  this  apology,  his  subsequent  conduct  was  so  tru- 
ly noble  as  to  reconcile  even  Tycho  to  his  penitent 
friend.  Kepler  quickly  saw  the  error  which  he 
committed  ;  he  lamented  it  with  genuine  contri- 
tion, and  was  anxious  to  remove  any  unfavourable 
impression  which  he  might  have  given  of  his  friend 
by  the  most  public  confession  of  his  error,  and  by 
the  warmest  acknowledgments  of  the  kindness  of 
Tycho. 

In  his  relations  with  the  scientific  men  of  his 
own  times,  Kepler  conducted  himself  with  that  can- 
dour and  love  of  truth  which  should  always  distin- 
guish the  philosopher.  He  was  never  actuated 
by  any  mean  jealousy  of  his  rivals.  He  never 
scrupled  to  acknowledge  their  high  merits ;  and 
when  the  discoveries  made  by  the  telescope  estab- 
lished beyond  a  doubt  the  errors  of  some  of  Kep- 
ler's views,  he  willingly  avowed  his  mistake,  and 
never  joined  in  the  opposition  which  was  made  by 
many  of  his  friends  to  the  discoveries  of  Galileo. 
A  striking  example  of  this  was  exhibited  in  refer, 
ence  to  his  supposed  discovery  of  Mercury  on  the 
sun's  disk.  In  the  year  1607*  Kepler  observed 

*  It  is  said  that  Kepler  saw  this  dark  spot  while  looking  at 
the  sun  in  a  camera  obscura.  As  a  camera  obscura  is  actual- 
ly a  telescope,  magnifying  objects  in  proportion  to  the  focal 


232  JOHN    KEPLER. 

upon  the  face  of  the  sun  a  dark  spot,  which  he  mis- 
took for  Mercury  ;  but  the  day  proving  cloudy,  he 
had  not  the  means  of  determining  by  subsequent 
observations  whether  or  not  this  opinion  was  well 
founded.  As  spots  on  the  sun  were  at  that  time 
unknown,  Kepler  did  not  hesitate  to  publish  the 
fact  in  1607,  in  his  Mercurius  in  Sole  visus ;  but 
when  Galileo,  a  few  years  afterward,  discovered  a 
great  number  of  similar  spots  with  the  telescope, 
Kepler  retracted  his  opinions,  and  acknowledged 
that  Galileo's  discovery  afforded  an  explanation, 
also,  of  many  similar  observations  in  old  writers, 
which  he  had  found  it  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the 
actual  motions  of  Mercury. 

Kepler  was  not  one  of  those  cold-hearted  men 
who,  though  continually  occupied  in  the  study  of 
the  material  world,  and  ambitious  of  the  distinction 
which  a  successful  examination  of  it  confers,  are 
yet  insensible  to  the  goodness  and  greatness  of  the 
Being  who  made  and  sustains  it.  His  mind  was 
cast  in  a  better  mould.  The  magnificence  and  har- 
mony of  the  Divine  works  excited  in  him  not  only 
admiration,  but  love.  He  felt  his  own  humility  the 
farther  he  was  allowed  to  penetrate  into  the  mys- 
teries of  the  universe  ;  and  sensible  of  the  incom- 
petency  of  his  unaided  powers  for  such  transcend- 

length  of  the  lens  employed,  he  may  be  said  to  have  first  seen 
these  spots  with  the  aid  of  an  optical  instrument. 


JOHN    KEPLER.  233 

ent  researches,  and  recognising  himself  as  but  the 
instrument  which  the  Almighty  employed  to  make 
known  his  wonders,  he  never  entered  upon  his  in- 
quiries  without  praying  for  assistance  from  above. 
This  frame  of  mind  was  by  no  means  inconsistent 
with  that  high  spirit  of  delight  and  triumph  with 
which  Kepler  surveyed  his  discoveries.     His  was 
the  unpretending  ovation  of  success,  not  the  osten- 
tatious triumph  of  ambition  ;  and  if  a  noble  pride 
did  occasionally  mingle  itself  with  his  feelings,  it 
was  the  pride  of  being  the  chosen  messenger  of 
physical  truth,  not  that  of  being  the  favoured  pos- 
sessor of  superior  genius.     With  such  a  frame  of 
mind,  Kepler  was  necessarily  a  Christian.     The 
afflictions  with  which  he  was  beset  confirmed  his 
faith  and  brightened  his  hopes  ;  he  bore  them  in  all 
their  variety  and  severity  with  Christian  patience  ; 
and  though  he  knew  that  this  world  was  to  be  the 
theatre  of  his  intellectual  glory,  yet  he  felt  that  his 
rest  and  his  reward  could  be  found  only  in  another. 
It  is  difficult  to  form  any  very  intelligible  idea  of 
the  nature  and  extent  of  Kepler's  astrological  opin- 
ions, and  of  the  degree  of  credit  which  he  himself 
placed  in  the  opinions  that  he  did  avow.     In  his 
Principles  of  Astrology,  published  in  1602,  and  in 
other  works,  he  rails  against  the  vanity  and  worth- 
lessness  of  the  ordinary  astrology.     He  regards 
those  who  professed  it  as  knaves  and  charlatans ; 
U2 


234  JOHN    KEPLER. 

and  maintains  that  the  planets  and  stars  exercise  no 
influence  whatever  over  human  affairs.  He  con- 
ceives, however,  that  certain  harmonious  configu- 
rations of  suitable  planets,  like  the  spur  to  a  horse 
or  a  speech  to  an  audience,  have  the  power  of  ex- 
citing the  minds  of  men  to  certain  general  actions 
or  impulses  ;  so  that  the  only  effect  of  these  con- 
figurations  is  to  operate  along  with  the  vital  soul  in 
producing  results  which  would  not  otherwise  have 
taken  place.  As  an  example  of  this,  he  states  that 
those  who  are  born  when  many  aspects  of  the  plan- 
ets occur,  generally  turn  out  busy  and  industrious, 
whether  they  be  occupied  in  amassing  wealth,  man- 
aging public  affairs,  or  prosecuting  scientific  stud- 
ies. Kepler  himself  was  born  under  a  triple  con- 
figuration, and  hence,  in  his  opinion,  his  ardour  and 
activity  in  study  ;  and  he  informs  us  that  he  knew 
a  lady  born  under  nearly  the  same  configurations, 
"  who  not  only  makes  no  progress  in  literature,  but 
troubles  her  whole  family,  and  occasions  deplorable 
misery  to  herself."  This  excitement  of  the  facul- 
ties of  sublunary  natures,  as  he  expresses  it,  by  the 
colours,  and  aspects,  and  conjunctions  of  the  planets, 
is  regarded  by  Kepler  as  a  fact,  which  he  had  de- 
duced from  observation,  and  which  has  "  compelled 
his  unwilling  belief."  "  I  have  been  driven  to  this," 
says  he,  "  not  by  studying  or  admiring  Plato,  but 
singly  and  solely  by  observing  seasons,  and  noting 
the  aspects  by  which  they  are  produced.  I  have 


JOHN   KEPLER.  235 

seen  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  almost  uniformly 
disturbed  as  often  as  the  planets  are  in  conjunction, 
or  in  the  other  configurations  so  celebrated  among 
astrologers.  I  have  noticed  its  tranquil  state  either 
when  there  are  none  or  few  such  aspects,  or  when 
they  are  transitory  and  of  short  duration."  Had 
Kepler  been  able  to  examine  these  hasty  and  erro- 
neous deductions  by  long-continued  observation,  he 
would  soon  have  found  that  the  coincidence  which 
he  did  observe  was  merely  accidental,  and  he  would 
have  cheerfully  acknowledged  it.  Speculations  of 
this  kind,  however,  are,  from  their  very  nature,  less 
subject  to  a  rigorous  scrutiny  ;  and  a  long  series  of 
observations  is  necessary  either  to  establish  or  to 
overturn  them.  The  industry  of  modern  observ- 
ers has  now  supplied  this  defect,  and  there  is  no 
point  in  science  more  certain  than  that  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets  do  not  exercise  any  influence  on 
the  general  state  of  our  atmosphere. 

The  philosophers  in  Kepler's  day,  who  had  stud- 
ied the  phenomena  of  the  tides  without  having  any 
idea  of  their  cause,  and  who  observed  that  they 
were  clearly  related  to  the  daily  motions  of  the  two 
great  luminaries,  may  be  excused  for  the  extrava- 
gance of  their  belief  in  supposing  that  the  planets 
exercised  other  influences  over  "  sublunary  nature." 
Although  Kepler,  in  his  Commentaries  on  Mars,  had 
considered  it  probable  that  the  waters  of  our  ocean 
are  attracted  by  the  moon,  as  iron  is  by  a  loadstone, 


236  JOHN    KEPLER. 

yet  this  opinion  seems  to  have  been  a  very  transient 
one,  as  he  long  afterward,  in  his  System  of  Har- 
monies, stated  his  firm  belief  that  the  earth  is  an 
enormous  living  animal,  and  enumerates  even  the 
analogies  between  its  habits  and  those  of  known 
animated  beings.  He  considered  the  tides  as  waves 
produced  by  the  spouting  out  of  water  through  its 
gills,  and  he  explains  their  relation  to  the  solar  and 
lunar  motions  by  supposing  that  the  terrene  mon- 
ster has,  like  other  animals,  its  daily  and  nightly  al- 
ternations of  sleeping  and  waking. 

From  the  consideration  of  Kepler's  astrological 
opinions,  it  is  an  agreeable  transition  to  proceed  to 
the  examination  of  his  high  merits  as  an  astrono- 
mer and  a  philosopher.  As  an  experimental  phi- 
losopher or  as  an  astronomical  observer,  Kepler 
does  not  lay  claim  to  our  admiration.  He  himself 
acknowledges,  "  that  for  observations  his  sight  was 
dull,  and  for  mechanical  operations  his  hand  was 
awkward."  He  suffered  much  from  weak  eyes, 
and  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution  did  not  permit 
him  to  expose  himself  to  the  night  air.  Notwith- 
standing these  hinderances,  however,  he  added  sev- 
eral observations  to  those  of  Tycho,  which  he  made 
with  two  instruments  that  were  presented  to  him  by 
his  friend  Hoffman,  the  president  of  the  States  of 
Styria.  These  instruments  were  an  iron  sextant 
2£  feet  in  diameter,  and  a  brass  azimuthal  quadrant 
3£  feet  in  diameter,  both  of  which  were  divided  into 


JOHN    KEPLER.  237 

single  minutes  of  a  degree.  They  were  very  sel- 
dom used,  and  we  must  regard  the  circumstances 
which  disqualified  Kepler  for  an  observer  as  high- 
ly favourable  to  the  development  of  those  great 
powers  which  he  directed  with  undivided  energy  to 
physical  astronomy. 

Even  if  Kepler  had  never  turned  his  attention  to 
the  heavens,  his  optical  labours  would  have  given 
him  a  high  rank  among  the  original  inquirers  of 
his  age  ;  but  when  we  consider  him  also  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  three  great  laws  which  bear  his 
name,  we  must  assign  him  a  rank  next  to  that  of 
Newton.  The  history  of  science  does  not  present 
us  with  any  discoveries  more  truly  original,  or 
which  required  for  their  establishment  a  more  pow- 
erful and  vigorous  mind.  The  speculations  of  his 
predecessors  afforded  him  no  assistance.  From 
the  cumbrous  machinery  adopted  by  Copernicus, 
Kepler  passed  at  one  step  to  an  elliptical  orbit, 
with  the  sun  in  one  of  its  foci,  and  from  that  mo- 
ment astronomy  became  a  demonstrative  science. 
The  splendid  discoveries  of  Newton  sprung  imme 
diately  from  those  of  Kepler,  and  completed  the 
great  chain  of  truths  which  constitute  the  laws  of 
the  planetary  system.  The  eccentricity  and  bold- 
ness of  Kepler's  powers  form  a  striking  contrast 
with  the  calm  intellect  and  the  enduring  patience  of 
Newton.  The  bright  spark  which  the  genius  of  the 


238  JOHN   KEPLER. 

one  elicited,  was  fostered  by  the  sagacity  of  the 
other  into  a  steady  and  a  permanent  flame.  • 

Kepler  has  fortunately  left  behind  him  a  full  ac- 
count of  the  methods  by  which  he  arrived  at  his 
great  discoveries.     What  other  philosophers  have 
studiously  concealed,  Kepler  has  openly  avowed 
and  minutely  detailed  ;  and  we  have  no  hesitation 
in  considering  these  details  as  the  most  valuable 
present  that  has  ever  been  given  to  science,  and  as 
deserving  the  careful  study  of  all  who  seek  to  em- 
ulate his  immortal  achievements.     It  has  been  as- 
serted that  Newton  made  his  discoveries  by  follow- 
ing a  different  method  ;  but  this  is  a  mere  assump- 
tion, as  Newton  has  never  favoured  the  world  with 
any  account  of  the  erroneous  speculations  and  the 
frequent  failures  which  must  have  preceded  his  ul- 
timate  success.     Had  Kepler  done  the  same,  by  re- 
cording only  the  final  steps  of  his  inquiries,  his 
method  of  investigation  would  have  obtained  the 
highest  celebrity,  and  would  have  been  held  up  to 
future  ages  as  a  pattern  for  their  imitation.     But 
such  was  the  candour  of  his  mind  and  such  his  in- 
ordinate love  of  truth,  that  he  not  only  recorded  his 
wildest  fancies,  but  emblazoned  even  his  greatest 
errors.     If  Newton  had  indulged  us  with  the  same 
insight  into  his  physical  inquiries,  we  should  have 
witnessed  the  same  processes  which  were  employ- 
ed by  Kepler,  modified  only  by  the  different  char- 
acters and  intensities  of  their  imaginative  powers. 


JOHN   KEPLER.  239 

When  Kepler  directed  his  mind  to  the  discovery 
of  a  general  principle,  he  set  distinctly  before  him, 
and  never  once  lost  sight  of,  the  explicit  object  of  his 
search.     His  imagination,  now  unreined,  indulged 
itself  in  the  creation  and  invention  of  various  hy- 
potheses.   The  most  plausible,  or,  perhaps,  the  most 
fascinating  of  these,  was  then  submitted  to  a  rigor- 
ous scrutiny  ;  and  the  moment  it  was  found  to  be 
incompatible  with  the  results  of  observation  and 
experiment,  it  was  willingly  abandoned,  and  anoth- 
er hypothesis  submitted  to  the  same  severe  ordeal. 
By  thus  gradually  excluding  erroneous  views  and 
assumptions,  Kepler  not  only  made  a  decided  ap- 
proximation to  the  object  of  his  pursuit,  but  in  the 
trials  to  which  his  opinions  were  submitted,  and  in 
the  observations  or  experiments  which  they  called 
forth,  he  discovered  new  facts  and  arrived  at  new 
views  which  directed  his  subsequent  inquiries.     By 
pursuing  this  method  he  succeeded  in  his  most  dif- 
ficult researches,  and  discovered  those  beautiful  and 
profound  laws  which  have  been  the  admiration  of 
succeeding  ages.     In  tracing  the  route  which  he 
followed,  it  is  easy  for  those  who  live  under  the  light 
of  modern  science  to  say  that  his  fancies  were  of- 
ten wild  and  his  labour  often  wasted  ;  but,  in  judg- 
ing of  Kepler's  methods,  we  ought  to  place  our- 
selves in  his  times,  and  invest  ourselves  with  the 
opinions  and  the  knowledge  of  his  contemporaries. 
In  the  infancy  of  a  science  there  is  no  specula- 


240  JOHN    KEPLER. 

tion  so  absurd  as  not  to  merit  examination.  The 
most  remote  and  fanciful  explanations  of  facts  have 
often  been  found  the  true  ones ;  and  opinions  which 
have  in  one  century  been  objects  of  ridicule,  have 
in  the  next  been  admitted  among  the  elements  of 
our  knowledge.  The  physical  world  teems  with 
wonders,  and  the  various  forms  of  matter  exhibit  to 
us  properties  and  relations  far  more  extraordinary 
than  the  wildest  fancy  could  have  conceived.  Hu- 
man reason  stands  appalled  before  this  magnificent 
display  of  creative  power,  and  they  who  have  drunk 
deepest  of  its  wisdom  will  be  the  least  disposed  to 
limit  the  excursions  of  physical  speculation. 

The  influence  of  the  imagination  as  an  instru- 
ment of  research  has,  we  think,  been  much  over- 
looked by  those  who  have  ventured  to  give  laws  to 
philosophy.  This  faculty  is  of  the  greatest  value 
in  physical  inquiries.  If  we  use  it  as  a  guide  and 
confide  in  its  indications,  it  will  infallibly  deceive 
us  ;  but  if  we  employ  it  as  an  auxiliary,  it  will  afford 
us  the  most  invaluable  aid.  Its  operation  is  like 
that  of  the  light  troops  which  are  sent  out  to  ascer- 
tain the  strength  and  position  of  an  enemy.  When 
the  struggle  commences,  their  services  terminate  ; 
and  it  is  by  the  solid  phalanx  of  the  judgment  that 
the  battle  must  be  fought  and  won. 

THE   END. 


u 

<-*-     3 


• 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made 
4  days  prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


FEB  0  6  2007 


16 


UNIVERSITY.  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


